Western

野獸調鍊師 · Beast Tamer — One who makes ferocious beasts into companions

The beast tamer (野獸調鍊師) is a profession making fierce beasts and magical creatures into companions for combat. More than mere hunters, they're animal psychologists who deeply understand creature nature and psychology to build trust relationships, handling regular animals like lions, tigers, bears, hawks, and wolves to magical beasts like griffins, pegasi, and chimeras. In Western fantasy, D&D's Beast Master Ranger, Diablo's Druid, and Final Fantasy XI's Beastmaster are prominent. Japanese works like Monster Hunter present the hunter-fighting-beasts variant. Eastern tradition frequently depicts Taoist immortals or Three Kingdoms heroes commanding fierce tigers. Often portrayed as solitary figures distanced from human society through their bond with animals.

魔道工學者 · Magitech Engineer — A creator who fuses magic and machinery

The magitech engineer (魔道工學者) is a profession applying magical principles to machines, devices, and structures to create magical implements (magitech). Unlike mages who wield magic directly, magitech engineers build devices that stabilize, store, amplify, and automate magical energy — converting it into tools usable by non-mages. Magic clocks, magic weapons, magic communicators, and magic airships are typical examples. Traditional mages condemn them as heretics 'corrupting the sanctity of magic,' but magitech's advance is unstoppable, becoming the key driver of world technological revolution. Final Fantasy VI (Magitek Warriors), VII (Midgar's Mako technology), and VIII (Esthar's magic city) best implement magitech, and it's also a popular new class in Japanese light novels.

暗黑騎士 · Dark Knight — A fallen warrior bound to darkness

The dark knight (暗黑騎士) is a class combining dark powers with melee combat. Opposite to the paladin, they contract with dark gods or demons instead of light deities, or burn their own life force to wield powerful dark magic. Featuring overwhelming offense and fear-inducing abilities, but at the cost of curses that constantly drain their own essence. Final Fantasy IV's Cecil Harvey is the most famous archetype, depicted as a class of trial to be reborn as a 'light knight.' A staple class of Japanese RPGs, appearing in FF, Dragon Quest, Disgaea — with dark armor, black cloaks, and red glowing eyes as visual trademarks. Popular as tragic heroes living in moral gray zones.

魔劍士 · Magic Swordsman — A rare dual expert who channels magic through the blade

The magic swordsman (魔劍士) is a rare class mastering both swordsmanship and magic. Channeling magic into swords for elemental attacks (flame sword, ice sword, lightning sword) or fighting with magical barriers, it combines the strengths of mages and warriors as a hybrid class. Requiring considerable skill in both, with extremely high learning difficulty, they often lean toward one side — 'enchanted swordsmen' favoring blade or 'sword-wielding mages' favoring magic. Popular in Japanese fantasy through FF series Red Mage and Magic Knight, and Japanese light novels like Magical Warrior Ride. Also established as standard classes in Western RPGs through D&D 5th Edition's Eldritch Knight and Divinity Original Sin's Battle Mage.

降靈術師 · Necromancer — A forbidden mage who controls death

The necromancer is a forbidden mage who summons the souls of the dead and controls corpses in battle. The name combines Greek 'nekros' (corpse) and 'manteia' (divination), originally meaning divination by consulting the dead, but medieval times merged it with black magic to become the evil practice of raising armies of the undead. Outlawed in most religions and nations, necromancy's power is unmatched as it allows unlimited reinforcements. D&D's Necromancer class, Diablo's Necromancer, and Warcraft's Lich King are modern fantasy archetypes, often depicted not as simple villains but as tragic figures exploring death's secrets.

術士 · Warlock — A cursed mage who has made a pact with a transcendent being

The warlock derives magical power through pacts with transcendent beings — demons, ancient gods, fey spirits. The key difference from regular mages is they receive abilities from a Patron rather than learning theory. They grow powerful quickly but pay a price: pieces of soul, lifespan, free will, or memories must be given to the Patron, with deviation from purpose causing loss of power or terrible fates. Officially introduced as a class in D&D 5th Edition, gaining popularity through faster growth and dark appeal compared to mages. Shakespeare's Macbeth witches, Marvel's Doctor Strange, and various English folk traditions exemplify warlock variants.

騎士 · Knight — Warrior of the Lower Nobility

The knight is the core warrior class of medieval European feudal society and fantasy's most iconic profession. Sworn to lords to defend domains, royalty, and the church, knights wear heavy plate armor and wield longswords, lances, and shields while charging on warhorses. More than mere soldiers, they belong to a moral class following the chivalric code of honor, courage, mercy, and justice — a noble status with titles (Sir) and granted lands. The Round Table knights of Arthurian legend and the Crusader military orders (Templars, Hospitallers) are the most famous historical and literary archetypes. Though their military role faded with Renaissance firearms, their ideals survive as a core motif in modern fantasy.

魔法師 · Mage / Wizard — A knowledge specialist who probes the principles of magic

The mage is an intellectual combat class researching magical principles and wielding their power. Casting powerful offensive, defensive, and support magic, mages are physically weak and cannot wear armor — requiring companion protection due to spell casting time. Using spellbooks, staves, and orbs as tools, they specialize in elemental magic (fire, ice, lightning), space-time manipulation, illusion, and various other schools. A core class in every fantasy work — Tolkien's Gandalf, Harry Potter's Hogwarts wizards, D&D's Wizard class — often portrayed at extremes: white-bearded sage or dark-robed sorcerer. The maxim 'time is mana' emphasizes the importance of study and training.

精靈師 · Elementalist — A mage who battles alongside nature's elemental spirits

The elementalist forms contracts with elemental spirits or directly wields elements themselves. Unlike summoners, they form equal partnerships with spirits, borrowing their power for extreme elemental magic (fire, water, wind, earth, lightning, light, dark). Usually specializing in one or a few elements, they maintain intimate relationships with multiple spirits of that element (from lesser to elemental kings). Featured in Final Fantasy, Warcraft, Korean fantasy novels, and other Eastern and Western works, especially popular in Korean fantasy where the 'female elementalist' character archetype is established. Paracelsus's four-element theory provides the scholarly foundation.

治癒師 · Healer — The heart of the party who restores life

The healer specializes in healing companions' wounds and purifying status ailments — a support combat class. Though weak in direct combat, they're the absolute key to party survival, forming one pillar of MMORPG's 'tank-dealer-healer' trinity. The source of their power varies — divine magic, nature magic, herbalism, spiritual abilities, or advanced magitech. Classic fantasy depicts the iconic white-robed female priest with staff, with FF's White Mage, WoW's priests and druids, and D&D's Life Cleric being essential classes in every fantasy work. The moral weight of fighting against one's limits in the face of companions' deaths gives the character depth.

召喚士 · Summoner — A commander-type mage who calls forth beings to battle

The summoner calls beings from other dimensions or realms to fight alongside them — a commander-type mage. Rather than fighting directly, they're strategists who direct spirits, demons, angels, magical beasts, and summoned creatures into battle. Social skills, contract negotiation, and leadership matter more than for regular mages, with some dedicating their entire lives to bonding with powerful summons. Final Fantasy summoners (especially FF10's Yuna) are the most popular archetype, with variants in D&D's Conjurer, Diablo's Necromancer, and WoW's Warlock pet system. Even mythology features such figures, as Indra of Indian myth commands the Marut host.

守護者 · Guardian — An iron wall that holds back the world with a single shield

The guardian is a combat class completely specialized in defense and party protection. Though weak in offense, they protect allies through world-class defense and aggro maintenance, absorbing any enemy attack. Filling the MMORPG 'tank' role, massive shields and sturdy armor are their trademarks. Beyond just absorbing attacks, they possess techniques converting defense to offense — shield counters, parry counterattacks, shield throws. FF's Guardian, Diablo's Crusader, and WoW's Protection Paladin are prominent examples, also embodying the tragic hero archetype like Tolkien's Boromir who sacrifices himself to protect companions.

龍騎士 · Dragon Knight — A celestial warrior who has made a pact with a dragon

The dragon knight (龍騎士) is an extremely rare combat class fighting alongside dragons through contract or bond. Soaring through the sky on dragons attacking enemies with spear and sword, or synchronizing with the dragon's flame and lightning breath for powerful combined attacks. Strongest of the strong even alone, no army can match them with their dragon. The bond with the dragon is said to grow stronger the more pure the knight's heart. The Dragoner game series and Final Fantasy's Dragoon class established the Japanese RPG standard, while Western fantasy literature features them through Anne McCaffrey's Pern Dragonriders and others. More than a class, they're icons of true friendship and partnership between dragon and human.

自然祭司 · Druid — An ancient priest who has become one with nature

The druid is an ancient priest class becoming one with nature and wielding its power. The historical archetype is the scholarly class responsible for religion, law, and education in Celtic societies (Gaul, Britain, Ireland) from the 1st century BCE, recorded in detail in Caesar's Gallic Wars. They held ceremonies in oak groves, taught disciples orally over 20 years, divined the future, and mediated tribal disputes. In fantasy they become a class with animal shapeshifting, nature magic, healing, and elemental summoning — D&D's Druid class, Warcraft's Druids, and Tolkien's Radagast are prominent examples. Strong association with hermits living in forests and wilderness away from cities and civilization.

鍊金術師 · Alchemist — The boundary between science and magic who transforms matter

The alchemist (鍊金術師) is an ancient and medieval scholarly profession pursuing both material transmutation and spiritual perfection. Originating in Alexandria, Egypt in the 3rd century BCE, refined in the Islamic world (8-13th c.), and spreading to Europe. The surface goals were finding the Philosopher's Stone (Lapis Philosophorum) to transmute base metals into gold and the elixir (immortality potion), but the essence was religious-philosophical practice pursuing the universe's secrets and the soul's purification. Newton and Robert Boyle, masters of early modern science, seriously studied alchemy, making it the direct ancestor of chemistry and pharmacy. Historical alchemists include Paracelsus, Nicolas Flamel, and Edward Kelley, and it's a staple motif in modern fantasy through Fullmetal Alchemist and Harry Potter's Hogwarts alchemy classes.

侍女 · Lady-in-Waiting — A Woman Who Attends Noble Ladies

A female attendant who exclusively serves a highborn woman — a queen, princess, or noblewoman. Unlike ordinary servants, ladies-in-waiting are often drawn from noble houses themselves, giving them a unique dual identity as 'a servant who is also a noble.' The number of attendants and the prestige of their houses served as a measure of the mistress's own status. The First Lady-in-Waiting to a queen wielded formidable influence at court.

槍騎士 · Lancer — A specialist in charges and piercing strikes

The lancer is a mounted warrior class wielding long lances to charge on horseback. In heavy plate armor, they concentrate the warhorse's kinetic energy at the lance tip to pierce enemy armor and shields in a single overwhelming strike. The star of medieval European tournaments, where the joust between two charging knights became the symbol of chivalry. Existing across civilizations — Japanese yari cavalry, Polish hussar lancers — they're popular as powerful single-strike classes in fantasy RPGs through FF's Dragon Jump and D&D's Cavalier.

聖騎士 · Paladin — A warrior of light blessed by divine grace

The paladin is a holy warrior class fighting for light and justice with divine blessing, a hybrid combining knightly combat with priestly holy magic. Serving gods of light, justice, or war, paladins use sword and divine magic to defeat undead and demons while healing allies. The historical archetype is Charlemagne's Twelve Peers (paladins), whose deeds are recorded in the medieval epic Song of Roland. D&D's Paladin class established the modern fantasy standard model, with the moral tension of losing divine favor and becoming a 'fallen paladin' for breaking sacred vows being its core appeal.

遊擊手 · Ranger — A tracker who has become one with the wild

The ranger is a tracker, scout, and hunter class master of wilderness and nature. Wielding bow and daggers, often fighting alongside an animal companion (typically wolf, hawk, or bear). Specialized in reading animal tracks and sensing nature's changes, rangers are perfect for wilderness exploration and enemy reconnaissance. Tolkien's Dúnedain rangers led by Aragorn in The Lord of the Rings established the iconic archetype of secret protectors of villages from the wilderness. Featured in every fantasy work in various forms — D&D's Ranger class, Diablo's Demon Hunter — also possessing herbalism and wilderness survival skills as a versatile profession.

吟遊詩人 · Bard — A wandering artist who changes the world with song and story

The bard is a wandering artist who moves people's emotions through song, music, and storytelling while immortally recording heroic deeds. The historical archetype is the bard class of Celtic society — scholars who memorized tribal history, genealogy, law, and mythology to pass down orally. Medieval Europe saw troubadours (southern France) and minnesingers (Germany) active in courts singing of love, war, and chivalry. In fantasy they become a class wielding magic through music, enhancing allies or charming/frightening enemies. D&D's Bard class is the prime example, with literary characters like Tolkien's Bilbo Baggins and Witcher's Dandelion.

戰士 · Warrior — The foundational melee combat class fighting with strength and endurance

The warrior is the most fundamental and universal melee combat class in fantasy RPGs, fighting on the front lines with various weapons — swords, axes, spears, blunt weapons — through raw strength and stamina. Relying on pure martial power and combat experience rather than magic or special abilities, warriors often serve as tanks in heavy armor absorbing enemy attacks. Boromir from Tolkien and D&D's Fighter class are archetypal, representing the 'powerful but simple' classic accessible to beginners. The most common class in guilds and mercenary companies, often appearing as companions in heroic narratives.

聖職者 · Cleric — A battle priest who fights and heals through divine power

The cleric is a warrior-priest class fighting and healing with divine power. While regular priests focus on religious rites and spiritual guidance, clerics accompany adventuring parties, healing allies and turning undead with holy magic. Traditionally wearing heavy armor and wielding maces — derived from medieval Catholic canon law forbidding priests from using bladed weapons, leading to mace as workaround. D&D's Cleric class became the standard healer/divine archetype for all fantasy RPGs, with rich variants serving different gods — light, healing, war, nature — each wielding different domain magic.

使用人 — Those Who Serve Noble Households

The servant (下人) was a service class employed in noble, royal, and wealthy households handling all daily chores. Their wide-ranging duties included cleaning, cooking, laundry, errands, childcare, and clothing assistance, living under the same roof as their masters' families yet separated by strict status differences. Victorian-era British great houses had the most elaborate hierarchical system — finely divided into butler, housekeeper, cook, lady's maid, footman, coachman, governess, and nanny, each with distinct responsibilities and rank. Essential personnel in European and Asian noble societies from medieval times through the 19th century, they gradually disappeared through the Industrial Revolution and World Wars. Modern dramas like Downton Abbey and the maid outfit motif have brought this culture back into focus.

賢者 · Sage — One who stands at the end of all knowledge

The sage is the highest intellectual class master of magic, combat, history, science, and all fields. Not a specialist but the ultimate generalist — the realm reached in old age after a lifetime dedicated to pursuing knowledge. A single piece of sage advice can change a kingdom's fate, and having one sage in a demon king-defeating party completely changes strategy. FF's Sage, Dragon Quest's sage class, and D&D's human sage are prominent examples, popularized through the white-bearded elder image of Tolkien's Gandalf and Harry Potter's Dumbledore. Not just scholars but versatile classes with combat ability, often appearing as powerful late-game companions in RPGs.

聖女 · Saint / Holy Maiden — The Highest Religious Woman, Blessed by the Divine

The saint (聖女, female holy figure) is a religious woman recognized as holy through divine grace. Over 1,000 women have been formally canonized in Catholicism through the canonization process — not mere nuns but exalted as the church's spiritual exemplars through miracles, martyrdom, devoted love, and religious insight. The most famous examples include Joan of Arc (15th c. France, who heard divine voices to become a Hundred Years' War hero), Teresa of Ávila (16th c. Spain, essence of mystical theology), and Mother Teresa (20th c. India, slum service). Eastern traditions feature mudang and Buddhist nuns in similar status, with Japan's Shinto saiō being imperial princess-saints who served Ise Grand Shrine. In fantasy they appear as sacred female characters with light magic and healing abilities.

盜賊 · Rogue / Thief — A versatile problem-solver who works in the shadows

The rogue specializes in non-combat skills like infiltration, trap disarmament, lockpicking, stealth, and deception, rather than direct combat — a versatile problem-solver class. Using light leather armor and daggers, rogues avoid direct confrontation and excel at backstab attacks targeting weaknesses. The archetype of D&D's Rogue class, an essential profession in every fantasy RPG, taking responsibility for traps and treasure in dungeon-exploring parties. Literary variants include Tolkien's hobbit Bilbo Baggins and Discworld's characters. Their morality spans a wide spectrum from righteous Robin Hood-style thieves to ruthless cutthroats.

時間術師 · Chronomancer — The forbidden extreme of one who wields time itself as a weapon

The chronomancer manipulates the flow of time — an extremely rare magical class. Wielding slowdown, acceleration, rewind, and stop magic, theoretically the most powerful class, but time magic's side effects — paradoxes, parallel world fractures, self-erasure — are severe enough that most magic schools forbid or seal it. The name combines Greek 'chronos' (time) and 'manteia' (divination), originally meaning time divination. Late D&D editions' Chronomancer, FF's Time Mages, and Dissidia's Ulrien are prominent examples, with modern SF films like Looper and Tenet featuring time manipulators. A single chronomancer can change the outcome of war, making them objects of fear.

祭司長 · High Priest — The highest religious authority who bridges gods and humanity

The high priest (祭司長) is the supreme religious leader of a religion, overseeing all rites and theology of temples and churches. Not merely a priest but a comprehensive leader controlling the religious community's politics, education, and finance, with power rivaling kings in ancient societies where religion and politics were inseparable. The most famous historical example is the High Priest of ancient Israel (Cohen Gadol of the Jerusalem Temple), the only person who could enter the Holy of Holies once a year before Yahweh. They existed in all ancient civilizations — High Priests of Amun in Egypt, Delphi in Greece, and Inca and Mayan priest-kings — and the prototype continues today through the Pope of Catholicism, Dalai Lama of Tibetan Buddhism, and Grand Shrine Priests of Shinto.

弓手 · Archer — A specialist in long-range precision strikes

The archer wields a bow as primary weapon, striking enemies precisely from range. Through keen eyesight, focus, steady breathing, and sharp finger control, archers can hit fast-moving targets from a hundred paces. Frequent heroes of literature and film — Tolkien's Legolas, Robin Hood, and others — typically wearing light leather armor and excelling in mountain and forest terrain. Eastern martial arts venerate the master archer as 'shenshi' (divine bow), and English longbowmen were the decisive military force of the Hundred Years' War. Magical variants like enchanted arrows and elven bows are common.

Wyvern · Type of Dragon — Legendary two-legged, winged reptilian creature

The wyvern is the two-legged, bat-winged dragon of medieval European heraldry and folklore, named from Old English 'wivere' (viper) — itself from Latin 'vipera' — and distinguished from the four-legged Western dragon by the absence of forelegs (the wings serve as arms) and by a long barbed tail terminating in an arrow-shaped venomous sting. The heraldic form was codified in late twelfth-century Anglo-Norman heraldry under Henry II, and Juliana Berners's 'Boke of Saint Albans' (1486) is the first English manual to set the wyvern apart from the four-footed dragon as a distinct heraldic beast. The Welsh red dragon Y Ddraig Goch became an official badge of the Tudor dynasty after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, and nineteenth-century English heralds harmonised it with the four-legged form as a 'four-footed wyvern'. The same silhouette has been adopted in J.R.R. Tolkien's Fell Beasts in 'The Lord of the Rings' (1954-55), the wyverns of FromSoftware's 'Dark Souls' (2011), the Rathalos line of Capcom's 'Monster Hunter' series (2004- ), the dragons of 'The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim' (2011), and the dragons of HBO's 'Game of Thrones' (2011-2019).

Tolkien's Gold-Hoarding Fire Dragon

Smaug — also styled the Golden, the Magnificent, the Tremendous — is the gold-greedy fire-drake of J.R.R. Tolkien's 'The Hobbit, or There and Back Again' (George Allen & Unwin, London, 1937) and the direct visual template for every modern fantasy dragon that sleeps on a hoard. He is a great crimson-scaled, bat-winged, two-legged fire-drake (so, strictly by the heraldic taxonomy, a wyvern), who descended on the Dwarf kingdom of Durin's Folk under the Lonely Mountain (Erebor) around the year 2770 of the Third Age, slaughtered Thrór's line, drove out the survivors and lay down on the looted hoard — including the Arkenstone of Thráin. About one hundred and seventy years later, in the events of 'The Hobbit', the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, thirteen Dwarves under Thorin Oakenshield and the wizard Gandalf travel to the mountain; Bilbo's conversation with Smaug in chapter twelve ('Inside Information') reveals the single bare patch over Smaug's left breast. A thrush carries the secret to Bard the Bowman of Esgaroth, whose ancestral Black Arrow strikes the spot, and Smaug falls dead into the Long Lake. His death triggers the Battle of the Five Armies that ends the novel.

Lightning Lord of the Desert

The Blue Dragon is one of the five chromatic (evil) dragons in Dungeons & Dragons, introduced in the 1974 original boxed set by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson and locked to Lawful Evil alignment from the 1977 AD&D Monster Manual onward. It is recognised by its azure scales and the single massive horn rising from its snout, and it exhales a 60-foot line of lightning rated at 12d10 damage in the 2014 fifth-edition Monster Manual. Among the chromatic dragons it is the most territorial and methodical, ruling desert tribes and nomadic peoples through hallucinations, mirages and divine impersonation in canon supplements from AD&D through fifth edition. The same creature appears in Mike Carr's 'In Search of the Unknown' (1979), the Dragonlance Chronicles by Tracy Hickman and Margaret Weis, and the desert encounters of Baldur's Gate 3 (2023) with consistent silhouette and lore.

Hunter of the Frozen Wastes

The White Dragon is one of the five branches of the chromatic dragons that took root in the 1974 first edition of Dungeons & Dragons by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, a cold hunter that holds the year-round snowfields of the polar seat and the frozen wasteland as its own territory. Scales as white as snow melt into the white seat of glacier and ice without leaving a single shadow, and from its mouth it breathes a single straight line of cold that brings the death of one breath, freezing man and beast at one seat. Among the five chromatic dragons, black, blue, green, red, and white, this one stands at the seat of the lowest intelligence, but the hunting instinct of the beast is set most clearly at the same seat in turn, and once it has fixed a prey, it follows for days at one seat with great patience. Its lair is a cave in a glacier or a deep seat in year-round snow, and within it the figure of the bodies of men and beasts killed in the same hunt, preserved forever in ice, is the clearest mark of one seat.

The Tyrant of Flame

The Red Dragon is the apex of the five chromatic (evil) dragons in Dungeons & Dragons and the most iconic dragon image of Western fantasy. Introduced as the volcanic, mountain-dwelling apex in the 1974 D&D original boxed set's 'Monsters & Treasure' booklet by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, it has been locked to Chaotic Evil alignment since the 1977 AD&D Monster Manual. In the 2014 fifth-edition Monster Manual an Adult Red Dragon is 25 to 30 metres long, challenge rating 17, with a sixty-foot cone of fire breath dealing 18d6 damage, while the Ancient Red Dragon is CR 24 with a ninety-foot cone and 26d6 damage. The modern canonical image is Smaug from J.R.R. Tolkien's 'The Hobbit' (1937) — the crimson dragon coiled on the treasure-heap of the Lonely Mountain (Erebor) — and the AD&D colour-coded taxonomy is widely held to take Smaug as its direct visual template. The same lineage carries through Takhisis, the Dark Queen of Dragonlance, the Shivan Dragon of 'Magic: The Gathering' (1993- ) and the Ancient Red Dragon encounters of Baldur's Gate 3 (2023).

The Golden Guardian of Justice

The Gold Dragon is the highest of the five metallic dragons of Dungeons & Dragons (gold, silver, copper, bronze, brass), introduced by Gary Gygax in 'Supplement III: Eldritch Wizardry' (TSR, 1976) and codified across the AD&D 'Monster Manual' (1977), 'Deities & Demigods' (1980), 'Draconomicon' (1990), the fifth-edition 'Monster Manual' (2014) and 'Fizban's Treasury of Dragons' (2021). Its alignment is locked Lawful Good, and its signature features are sun-bright gold scales, a pair of elegant rear-swept horns and the wisp of gold barbels hanging beneath the jaw. From the jaws come two breaths, exhaled in a ninety-foot cone: a stream of gold fire and a weakening gas that temporarily drains the strength of those who breathe it. Seven ancient gold dragons stand as the personal guard of Bahamut, the platinum king of the metallic dragons. The Gold Dragon can polymorph at will into a human, elf, dragonborn or other humanoid, and is the most accomplished spellcaster of any dragon, wielding ninth-level magic such as time stop in fifth edition. The same silhouette and lore appear in the Dragonlance Chronicles and in the gold-dragon encounters of Baldur's Gate 3 (2023).

Acidic Tyrant of the Swamps

The Black Dragon is one of the branches of the chromatic dragons that took root in the 1974 first edition of Dungeons & Dragons by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, a great evil-aligned lizard ruling the rotted seats of swamp and marshland. Scales black as lacquer, two long horns that curve back as they grow, and narrow yellow eyes that gleam through the mist are the clearest mark of one seat, and from its mouth it breathes a single straight line of strong acid that corrodes even a steel harness in a single pass. It knows every seat of its territory exactly, and the sadistic habit of not killing a man at one stroke but tormenting him slowly and drinking in his pain stands out the most among the other chromatic dragons of the same seat. Its lair is a sunken old temple or a narrow, dark cave in the heart of a swamp, where it sets human slaves and lizardfolk to weave the seat of a labyrinth.

General Term for Greek Nature Spirits

The Nymph (Greek Nymphē, English Nymph) is the decisive canonical collective term for female spirits dwelling in various aspects of nature in ancient Greek mythology. The etymology is the Greek nymphē ('young woman, bride'), and they are classified according to their dwelling environment — Dryad (tree), Hamadryad (specific tree), Naiad (fresh water), Nereid (sea), Oread (mountain), Limniad (lake), Auloniad (valley) — the decisive canonical iconography. The decisive textual canon is line 420 of Book 6 of the Iliad and lines 105-109 of Book 6 of the Odyssey of the c. 8th-century-BCE Homer (Hesiodos) — nymphs accompanying Artemis — and the list of fifty Nereids in lines 240-264 and the list of three thousand Oceanids in lines 346-370 of the Theogony of c. 700-BCE Hesiod (Hesiodos) is the decisive Greek-mythological canon. The decisive Latin-literary canon is the Metamorphoses of c. 8 CE Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 BCE - 17 CE), and the decisive Victorian visual canon is the 1896 painting Hylas and the Nymphs (Hylas and the Nymphs) of the British painter John William Waterhouse (1849-1917) — in the collection of the Manchester Art Gallery.

Small Sylph from Pope's The Rape of the Lock

The Sylphid (French Sylphide, English Sylphid, Latin sylphida) is the decisive canonical adaptation of the small Sylph or young Sylph introduced as 'sylphid' in line 50 of Canto 1 of the satirical poem The Rape of the Lock (1714 5-canto expanded edition) of Alexander Pope (Alexander Pope, 1688-1744) published in England on 4 May 1712. The etymology combines the Latin sylphus (Sylph, air spirit) of Paracelsus of 1566 with the Greek-Latin diminutive-feminine suffix -ida — the decisive canonical vocabulary — and the iconography depicts an elegant, light spirit with small butterfly- or dragonfly-like wings in white attire. The decisive canon is the ballet La Sylphide premiered at the Salle Le Peletier opera house in Paris on 12 March 1832 — composed by Jean-Madeleine Schneitzhoeffer, choreographed by Filippo Taglioni, with Marie Taglioni in the lead role — establishing the decisive origin of 19th-century Romantic ballet as the first pointe-shoe performance in ballet history. The 1822 novella Trilby, ou le Lutin d'Argail of the French writer Charles Nodier (Charles Nodier, 1780-1844) is the decisive source of the 1832 ballet libretto, and the Danish version premiered at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen on 28 July 1836, choreographed by August Bournonville (1805-1879) and composed by Herman Severin Lovenskiold, is the decisive Danish ballet canon preserved to 2024.

Mountain Nymph of Greek Mythology

The Oread (Greek Oreias, plural Oreiades, English Oread) is the mountain nymph (Greek nymphe) of Greek mythology, who dwells in mountains and caves, frequently depicted as a companion of the hunting goddess Artemis — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the Greek-mythological mountain spirit. The etymology derives from the Greek oros ('mountain'), and within the classification of nymphs — Naiad (freshwater), Oceanid (ocean), Nereid (salt sea), Dryad (tree), Oread (mountain) — the Oread is the decisive canon of the mountain. The decisive textual canon is the origin in line 420 of Book 6 of the Iliad of the eighth-century BCE Homer (Homeros) — that the mountain nymphs planted elm trees by the grave of Eetion, father of Andromache — and in lines 615-617 of Book 24 — that the mountain nymphs danced on Mount Sipylos after the death of the children of Niobe — the origin of the mountain-nymph iconography, and the decisive canon is the Echo and Narcissus canon in lines 339-510 of Book 3 of the Metamorphoses (Metamorphoses) of the Roman poet Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 BCE - 17 CE) of c. 8 CE — in which the Oread mountain nymph Echo loved the beautiful youth Narcissus unrequitedly but, by the curse of Hera, could only repeat the last words of others, and ultimately became the mountain echo (meta-echo) — the decisive culminating canon of the Latin-literary Oread. The 1903 painting Echo and Narcissus by the British Pre-Raphaelite painter John William Waterhouse (1849-1917), held by the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool, Britain, established the visual canon of the Oread in the nineteenth-century Victorian era.

English Folk Marsh Spirit

The Will-o'-the-Wisp (English Will-o'-the-Wisp) is the most decisive canonical iconographic spirit of the will-o'-the-wisp (ignis fatuus) of English folklore. The etymology is the English Will of the Wisp ('Will holding a wisp torch'), first attested in English in 1607 — the decisive canonical vocabulary. It appears in marshes, wetlands, and moors at night as a small flickering blue or yellow flame — receding when approached and approaching when receded — luring lost travellers into the marsh to their death — the decisive canonical iconography. The decisive etymological canon is the decisive legend that the evil blacksmith Will (Smith Will) of 16th-century England, rejected from both heaven and hell after death, carries a wisp torch with coal given by the devil and wanders the marshes forever, and the decisive literary canon is line 104 of the twin poem L'Allegro (L'Allegro) of the British poet John Milton (John Milton, 1608-1674) of 1631 — 'led by the Friar's Lantern' — and the fairy tale The Will-o'-the-Wisps Are in Town, Said the Marsh Woman (Lygtemaendene ere i Byen, sagde Mosekonen) of the Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen (Hans Christian Andersen, 1805-1875) published in Copenhagen, Denmark on 7 April 1845 — the decisive Andersen fairy-tale canon. The decisive 21st-century film canon is the Pixar (Pixar) animated film Brave (Brave) released in the USA on 22 June 2012 — in which blue Will-o'-the-Wisps lead the Scottish princess Merida to her fate — the decisive global film canon.

Freshwater Nymph of Greek Mythology

The Naiad (Greek Naias, plural Naiades, English Naiad) is the freshwater nymph (Greek nymphe) who dwells in the freshwater (springs, rivers, lakes, wells) of Greek mythology, in the form of a beautiful human female, embodying the divinity of the freshwater source — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of Greek-mythological nature spirits. The etymology derives from the Greek verb naein ('to flow'), and within the four-fold classification of nymphs — Naiad (freshwater), Oceanid (Oceanids, ocean), Nereid (Nereids, salt sea), and Dryad (Dryads, tree) — the Naiad is the decisive canon of freshwater. The decisive textual canon is in the Theogony (Theogonia) of the Greek poet Hesiod (Hesiodos), c. 700 BCE — lines 364-370, the canon of the 3,000 sisters Oceanids and 3,000 brothers River-gods (Potamoi) born to the river-god Oceanus (Okeanos) and his sister Tethys — is the decisive textual canon of the Naiad, and the river nymphs appear decisively in Books 14 and 20 of the Iliad and Books 13 and 17 of the Odyssey by Homer (Homeros) of the eighth century BCE. The Naiad Castalia of the Castalian Spring (Kastalia) by the Temple of Apollo at Delphi in Greece — the canonical inspiration of poetic prophecy — is the most decisive individual Naiad, and the 1896 painting Hylas and the Nymphs by the British Pre-Raphaelite painter John William Waterhouse (1849-1917) established the visual canon of the Naiad in the nineteenth-century Victorian era.

Latin 'Foolish Fire,' Scientific Name for Will-o'-the-Wisp

The Ignis Fatuus (Latin ignis fatuus, English ignis fatuus/will-o'-the-wisp, German Irrlicht, French feu follet) is the canonical scientific name for the natural-phosphorescence phenomenon in marshes — Latin 'foolish fire' (ignis 'fire' + fatuus 'foolish') — and the canonical iconography of medieval European folklore and English literature, the blue light presumed to be the natural ignition of marsh methane (CH4) and phosphine (PH3) that lures travelers and causes them to lose their way. The etymology is the combination of the Latin ignis ('fire') and fatuus ('foolish'), and since appearing in the Natural History (Naturalis Historia) of the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (Plinius Maior, 23-79 CE) of the 1st century, it settled as the decisive scientific name in 16th-18th-century natural histories. The decisive textual canon is the canon of Act 3 Scene 3 of the historical play Henry IV, Part 1 of the British William Shakespeare (1564-1616) of 1597 — in which Sir Falstaff compares Bardolph's red nose to 'ignis fatuus or a ball of wildfire' — the decisive English-literary entry, and the decisive poetic canon is the canon of lines 634-642 of Book 9 of the epic Paradise Lost of the British poet John Milton (1608-1674) of 1667 — comparing Satan's seduction of Eve to the marsh ignis fatuus — the decisive English-literary canon. The Will-o-Wisp of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gygax of TSR in the USA — consistent through to 5e (5th Edition) of 2014 — is the decisive canon of the modern fantasy RPG will-o'-the-wisp.

Fire Spirit of Paracelsus

The Salamander (Latin Salamandra, Greek salamandra, English Salamander) is the decisive canonical spirit of fire (Ignis) among the four element spirits (Elemental Spirits) in the posthumous 1566 Latin treatise A Book of Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders (Liber de Nymphis, Sylphis, Pygmaeis et Salamandris) by the Swiss physician-alchemist Paracelsus (1493-1541), a small spirit in the form of a salamander wholly enveloped in flame, dwelling in the hearth and furnace, canonised as the decisive guardian spirit of the blacksmith and the alchemist. The iconographic origin is (1) the canonical record in Book 5, Chapter 19 of the Historia Animalium of the fourth-century BCE Greek philosopher Aristotle (Aristoteles, 384-322 BCE), that the salamandra walks through fire and extinguishes it, and (2) the canonical misunderstanding in Book 10, Chapter 86 of the Natural History (Naturalis Historia) of the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, 23-79 CE) of 77 CE, that the salamandra is born by fire. The decisive canon is the four-element-spirit theory of Paracelsus of 1566 — Undine (Water), Sylph (Air), Gnome (Earth), and Salamander (Fire) — by which the Salamander became the decisive canon of the European Renaissance fire spirit. The Salamander monster of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gary Gygax (1938-2008) of TSR in the USA — consistent through to 5e (5th Edition) of 2014 — is the decisive canon of the modern fantasy RPG fire spirit.

Air Spirit from Shakespeare's The Tempest

Ariel (English Ariel, Hebrew Ariel ('lion of God' or 'messenger of God'), Latin Ariel) is the air spirit in the last solo play The Tempest of 1611 by the English playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616), the faithful servant of the sorcerer Prospero who, in invisible form, freely commands tempests, illusions, and music — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the English-literary air spirit. The etymology derives from the Hebrew Ariel ('lion of God' or 'messenger of God') — the alternative name of Jerusalem in Isaiah 29:1-2 of the Old Testament — and in the European Kabbalistic mysticism of the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, Ariel was canonised as the angel of the air element (Air) among the seventy-two angels of the Shem HaMephorash, decisively recorded in Book 3 of the De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres of the German mystic Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535) of 1533. The decisive canon is Shakespeare's play The Tempest, premiered on 1 November 1611 at Whitehall Palace in London, England (published in the First Folio Volume 1 of 1623) — the plot in which Ariel, who had been imprisoned in a pine tree by the witch Sycorax for twelve years, is rescued by Prospero and bound to serve him for twelve years in exchange for the promise of freedom (Acts 1.2 to 4) — is the decisive canon of the English-literary air spirit. The sylph Ariel in the satirical poem The Rape of the Lock of 1714 by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) extended the eighteenth-century English-literary air-spirit canon, and the Air Elemental and Sylph canon of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gary Gygax of TSR in the USA is the decisive canonical iconography of the modern fantasy RPG air spirit.

Tree Nymph of Greek Mythology

The Dryad (Greek Dryas, plural Dryades, English Dryad) is the tree nymph (Greek nymphe) of Greek mythology who dwells in forests and trees, originally meaning the spirit dwelling in the oak (drys, drys) but later extended as the general name of the spirit dwelling in all trees — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the Greek-mythological nature spirit. The etymology derives from the Greek drys (drys, 'oak'), and within the classification of nymphs — Naiad (freshwater), Oceanid (ocean), Nereid (salt sea), Dryad (tree), Oread (mountain) — the Dryad is the decisive canon of the tree. The special canonical figure Hamadryad (Hamadryas, 'with the tree') is the decisive adaptation of the Dryad, permanently bound to a single tree and sharing its life and fate. The decisive literary canon is the Erysichthon canon in lines 738-878 of Book 8 of the Metamorphoses (Metamorphoses) of the Roman poet Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 BCE - 17 CE) of c. 8 CE — in which the Thessalian king Erysichthon cuts down the oak of Demeter's sacred grove, killing the Hamadryad, and Demeter sends the spirit of hunger Limos (Limos) to punish him with eternal hunger so that he ultimately eats himself — and the Dryad monster of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gary Gygax (1938-2008) of TSR in the USA, consistent through to 5e (5th Edition) of 2014, is the decisive canon of the modern fantasy RPG tree spirit.

Earth Spirit of Paracelsus

The Gnome (Latin Gnomus, English Gnome) is the decisive canonical spirit of earth (Terra) among the four element spirits (Elemental Spirits) in the posthumous 1566 Latin treatise A Book of Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders (Liber de Nymphis, Sylphis, Pygmaeis et Salamandris) by the Swiss physician-alchemist Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493-1541). It has the decisive iconography of a small old-man figure (usually about 30 cm), with a white beard and a red conical cap, dwelling in the earth, caves, rocks, and mines, skilled in mining for gems, minerals, and metals — the canonical guardian of treasure, of disposition to avoid humans. The etymology is the Latin Gnomus — coined by Paracelsus, presumably from the Greek ge-nomos (ge-nomos, 'one who dwells in the earth') or gnosis (gnosis, 'knowledge') — and is decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive canon is the four-element-spirit theory of Paracelsus of 1566, published posthumously in Basel, Switzerland — Undine (Water), Sylph (Air), Gnomus (Earth), Salamander (Fire) — by which the Gnome became the decisive canon of the European Renaissance earth spirit. The first ceramic garden gnome (Gartenzwerg) production at the Philipp Griebel workshop in Graefenroda, Thuringia, Germany, in 1872 decisively settled the nineteenth- and twentieth-century global garden-decoration Gnome canon, and the Gnome race of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gary Gygax of TSR in the USA — consistent through to 5e (5th Edition) of 2014 — is the decisive canon of the modern fantasy RPG Gnome race.

Personification of Frost in English/Norse Folklore

Jack Frost is the personified spirit of frost and cold in English and Scandinavian folklore, appearing as a young boy or mischievous old man, the canonical iconographic figure that draws ice-flower patterns (frost ferns) on windows on winter mornings and nips people's noses and toes. The etymology is the combination of the English Jack (a generic male name) and Frost (frost, from Old English forst), and the first decisive textual record of English Jack Frost appears in the 1734 poem A Mountain of Frost in the British London Magazine. The iconographic origin is the fusion of (1) the Norse-mythological frost-giants Jokull ('glacier') and Frosti ('frost') of Chapter 1 of the Halfdanar saga svarta of the Heimskringla of the early-thirteenth-century Icelandic poet Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241), and (2) the Morozko ('Little Frost') and Ded Moroz ('Grandfather Frost') canon in the Russian Folk Tales (Narodnye Russkie Skazki) of the Russian folklorist Alexander Afanasyev (1826-1871) of 1855-1863. The decisive modern canon is the 1944 song The Christmas Song by the American composer Mel Torme (1925-1999) and lyricist Robert Wells (1922-1998) — with the line 'Jack Frost nipping at your nose' — which decisively settled the twentieth-century global Jack Frost canon, and the Jack Frost protagonist of the DreamWorks animated film Rise of the Guardians (released 21 November 2012 in the USA, based on William Joyce) is the twenty-first-century global Jack Frost cinematic canon.

Fire Dragon of Beowulf and Norse Myth

The Fire-drake (Old English fyrdraca, English fire-drake) is the decisive canonical name for the fire-breathing dragon (draca) of Old English and Norse mythology. The etymology is the combination of the Old English fyr ('fire') and draca (borrowed from the Latin draco and Greek drakon, 'dragon'), the Old form of English dragon. The decisive textual canon is the canon in lines 2200-3182 of Book 3 of the Old English epic Beowulf (3,182 lines in total) by an anonymous author of the 8th-10th centuries — in which the hero Beowulf, in his old age after ruling the Geat kingdom for fifty years, when a thief steals the treasure of a sleeping fire-drake — the dragon devastates the Geat kingdom with fire — Beowulf, with his loyal retainer Wiglaf, slays the dragon but dies from the dragon's venom. The Beowulf single manuscript — the Nowell Codex (Cotton Vitellius A.xv at the British Library) copied around the year 1000 — is the decisive textual canon, and the Smaug of The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973), published in Britain on 21 September 1937 — the fire-drake guarding the treasure under the Lonely Mountain — is the decisive modern adaptation of the global fantasy fire-dragon canon of the twentieth century, and the Red Dragon (fire breath) of the 1977 D&D Monster Manual by Gary Gygax of TSR in the USA — consistent through to 5e (5th Edition) of 2014 — is the decisive canon of the modern fantasy RPG fire-dragon.

Water Spirit of Germanic/Slavic Folklore

The Nix (Old English nicor, Old Norse nykr, German Nix/Nixe, English Nix or Nixie) is the canonical iconographic figure of the water spirit of Germanic and Slavic folklore dwelling in fresh water — rivers, lakes, and wells — appearing in alluring human form (mostly as beautiful women or handsome men) and luring humans into the water through music and song, with the true form being canonical iconography of a fish-tail, fish-scales, or green skin. The etymology derives from the Proto-Indo-European *neigw- ('to wash, purify') through the Proto-Germanic *nikwiz — the canonical vocabulary of Old English nicor, Old Norse nykr, and Old High German nihhus. The decisive textual canon is line 422 of Book 1 and line 1427 of Book 2 of the Old English epic Beowulf (Beowulf) by an anonymous author of the 8th-10th centuries — the water-monsters 'nicras' in the lake where the hero Beowulf fights Grendel's mother with the sword Hrunting — the decisive origin of the Germanic canon, and the canon of tale 79 The Nixie of the Mill-Pond (Die Nixe im Teich) of the Kinder- und Hausmaerchen of the German Grimm Brothers (Jacob and Wilhelm) of 1812-1815 is the decisive canon of the 19th-century German fairy-tale Nix. The 1779 poem The Fisherman (Der Fischer) of the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) and the 1824 poem The Loreley (Die Loreley) of the German poet Heinrich Heine (1797-1856) established the 19th-century German Romantic Nix poetic canon, and the opera Rusalka by the Czech composer Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904), premiered on 31 March 1901 at the National Theatre in Prague, is the decisive musical canon of the Slavic Nix canon.

Fifty Sea Nymph Sisters of Greek Mythology

The Nereid (Greek Nereis, plural Nereides, English Nereid) is the canonical iconographic figure of the fifty sea-nymph sisters (nymphe) born to the sea-god Nereus (Nereus, 'wet one') and the Oceanid Doris (Doris) of Greek mythology. Within the classification of nymphs — Naiad (freshwater), Oceanid (ocean), Nereid (salt sea), Dryad (tree), Oread (mountain) — the Nereid is the decisive canon of salt sea, and the decisive textual canon is the canon of lines 240-264 of the Theogony (Theogonia) of the Greek poet Hesiod (Hesiodos) of c. 700 BCE — naming all fifty Nereids — the decisive canon. The most decisive Homeric canon is the canon of lines 35-64 of Book 18 of the Iliad of the eighth-century-BCE Homer (Homeros) — when the Nereid Thetis (Thetis), mother of the hero Achilles, grieves over the death of her son's friend Patroclus, thirty-three Nereid sisters rise from the deep-sea cave to comfort her — the decisive canonical scene of Greek epic, and the most decisive visual canon is the c. 1512 painting The Triumph of Galatea (Trionfo di Galatea) by the Italian Renaissance painter Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, 1483-1520) — held by the Villa Farnesina in Rome — the decisive culminating work of the Renaissance Nereid visual canon.

Spirit Form of the Immortal Phoenix

The Phoenix Spirit (Greek Phoinix, Latin Phoenix, English Phoenix) is the canonical iconographic figure of the immortal flame-bird — adapting the Egyptian Bennu (Bennu) and the Greek Phoenix tradition into the spirit category — that immolates itself every 500 or 1000 years and is reborn from the ashes. The etymology is presumed from the Greek Phoinix (Greek 'crimson' or 'Phoenician bird'), and the bennu ('the one that rises') of ancient Egypt — the canonical sacred bird of the resurrection of the sun god Ra and Osiris of Heliopolis — is the decisive origin of the Greek Phoenix iconography. The decisive textual canon is Chapter 73 of Book 2 of the Histories (Historiai) of the Greek historian Herodotus (Herodotus, c. 484-425 BCE) of the 5th century BCE — the testimony of Egyptian priests of seeing the Phoenix at the Sun Temple of Heliopolis and the canon that every 500 years the Phoenix comes from Arabia to Heliopolis carrying the corpse of its father Phoenix in a myrrh egg — the decisive canon, and the decisive Latin-literary canon is the canon of lines 392-407 of Book 15 of the Metamorphoses of the Roman poet Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 BCE - 17 CE) of c. 8 CE — the 1000-year cyclic self-immolation and rebirth from the ashes — the decisive canon. The decisive modern canon is the Headmaster Dumbledore's phoenix Fawkes of the Harry Potter (Harry Potter) series of the British author J. K. Rowling (J. K. Rowling, b. 1965) of 1997-2007 — first appearing in Chapter 12 of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets of 1998 — the decisive culminating work of the 21st-century global Phoenix canon.

Water Spirit of Paracelsus

The Undine (Latin Undina, German Undine, English Undine) is the decisive canonical spirit of water (Aqua) among the four element spirits (Elemental Spirits) in the posthumous 1566 Latin treatise A Book of Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders (Liber de Nymphis, Sylphis, Pygmaeis et Salamandris) by the Swiss physician-alchemist Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493-1541). The etymology is the canonical vocabulary of the Paracelsian coinage Undina derived from the Latin unda ('wave, billow'), and the decisive canonical iconography depicts her as a beautiful human female figure — dwelling in fresh water such as waterfalls, lakes, and springs — originally without a soul but acquiring one through marriage to a human. The decisive literary canon is the novella Undine (Undine) of 1811 by the German Romantic author Friedrich de la Motte Fouque (1777-1843) — the decisive Romantic tragic canon in which the Undine, who acquires a soul by marrying the human knight Huldbrand (Huldbrand), comes to death through her husband's betrayal — and the opera Undine premiered at the Royal Theatre in Berlin on 3 August 1816 by E. T. A. Hoffmann (E. T. A. Hoffmann, 1776-1822) — with libretto by Fouque himself — is the decisive canon of German Romantic opera. The ballet Undine of the German composer Hans Werner Henze (1926-2012), premiered at the Royal Opera House Covent Garden in London on 27 October 1958 (choreographed by Frederick Ashton, with Margot Fonteyn as Undine) is the decisive canon of 20th-century ballet.

Thunder Bird of Native American Mythology

The Thunderbird (English Thunderbird, Algonquian/Ojibwe Animikii, Lakota Wakinyan) is the canonical iconographic figure of the giant bird-form spiritual being — resembling an eagle or condor — that widely appears in Native American mythology, in which the flapping of its wings creates thunder and its eyes shoot lightning — the decisive canon. The etymology is the English Thunderbird ('bird of thunder'), settled as the decisive canonical vocabulary by 1830s American naturalists and folklorists translating the Algonquian/Ojibwe Animikii ('thunderer') and Lakota Wakinyan ('flying sacred') into English. The decisive tribal traditions are (1) the Algonquian/Ojibwe — the decisive Thunderbird canon of the Lake Michigan and Great Lakes region; (2) the Lakota — the decisive Wakinyan canon of the Dakota and Black Hills region; and (3) the Pacific Northwest Coast tribes Haida and Kwakwaka'wakw — the totem-pole-top canon of the coast of British Columbia, Canada. The decisive textual record is the journal of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (Lewis and Clark Expedition) of 1804-1806 — recording the Thunderbird belief of the Indigenous people along the Columbia River — and the decisive English scholarly canonisation of the Ojibwe Animikii canon in the Algic Researches (2 volumes) of the American folklorist Henry Schoolcraft (Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, 1793-1864) of 1849, and the epic The Song of Hiawatha (22 cantos) of the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882) published in the USA on 10 November 1855 is the decisive 19th-century American-literary Thunderbird canon.

English Folk Will-o'-the-Wisp

The Friar's Lantern (English Friar's Lantern, 'lantern of the friar') is the decisive canonical variant name of the will-o'-the-wisp of English folklore, with the c. 1568 anonymous prose narrative The History of Friar Rush (The History of Friar Rush) published in England — about the mischievous monk-spirit Friar Rush of 16th-century England — as the decisive etymological canon. It appears as a small flickering light in marshes, moors, and churchyards — in the form of a monk holding a torch or lantern — that lures travellers off their path — the decisive canonical iconography. The decisive literary canon is the 1631 poem L'Allegro (L'Allegro) of the British poet John Milton (John Milton, 1608-1674) line 104 — 'led by the Friar's Lantern' — the decisive event of vocabulary canonisation in English literature, and Act 2 Scene 1 of the 1595-1596 play A Midsummer Night's Dream (A Midsummer Night's Dream) of William Shakespeare (William Shakespeare, 1564-1616) — in which Puck, who is Robin Goodfellow (Robin Goodfellow), says 'I am that merry wanderer of the night' and describes himself as a spirit who misleads travellers — is the decisive English-literary precursor canon to the 1631 Milton canon. It is the decisive will-o'-the-wisp spirit of the same family as the Jack-o'-lantern.

Air Spirit of Paracelsus

The Sylph (Latin Sylphus, English Sylph, French Sylphe) is the decisive canonical spirit of air (Aer) among the four element spirits in the posthumous 1566 Latin treatise A Book of Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders (Liber de Nymphis, Sylphis, Pygmaeis et Salamandris) by the Swiss physician-alchemist Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493-1541). The etymology is the Latin Sylphus — coined by Paracelsus as a compound of the Greek silphe (silphe, 'butterfly, moth') and the Latin sylvestris ('of the forest') — and the iconography depicts a free-spirited, translucent humanoid with dragonfly- or butterfly-like wings. The decisive literary canon is the satirical poem The Rape of the Lock by the British poet Alexander Pope (Alexander Pope, 1688-1744) published in London on 4 May 1712 (5-canto expanded edition of 1714) — female souls become sylphs after death and protect virgins — and the decisive ballet canon is the ballet La Sylphide premiered at the Salle Le Peletier opera house in Paris on 12 March 1832 (composed by Schneitzhoeffer, choreographed by Filippo Taglioni, starring Marie Taglioni) — the first pointe-shoe performance in ballet history, establishing the decisive 19th-century Romantic ballet canon.

Greek Tree Spirit Bound to a Single Tree

The Hamadryad (Greek Hamadryas, plural Hamadryades, English Hamadryad) is the canonical tree-spirit iconography of Greek mythology — unlike the general Dryad, permanently bound to a single specific tree — sharing the lifespan and fate of that tree as the decisive canon. The etymology is the compound of the Greek hama ('with, together') and drys ('oak, tree'), meaning 'with the tree' — the decisive canonical vocabulary — and while the general Dryad (Dryas) is a free spirit dwelling in all trees, the Hamadryad is the decisive adaptation canon permanently bound to a single tree. The decisive textual canon is the fragmentary canon of the Precepts of Chiron of the c. 700 BCE Greek poet Hesiod (Hesiodos) — quoted by the c. 1st-century Greek writer Plutarch (Ploutarchos) in Chapter 11 of On the Decay of Oracles (De Defectu Oraculorum) — that the Hamadryad's lifespan equals nine generations of crows (about 9 years times 9 equals 81 years), and the canon of lines 476-485 of Book 2 of the Argonautica (Argonautika) of the 4th-3rd-century-BCE Alexandrian poet Apollonius Rhodius (Apollonios Rhodios, 295-215 BCE) — in which the Phrygian shepherd Laelaps does not cut down the Hamadryad's oak, and the Hamadryad blesses him — is the decisive canon. The decisive Latin-literary canon is the canon of lines 738-878 of Book 8 of the Metamorphoses of the Roman poet Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso, 43 BCE - 17 CE) of c. 8 CE — the decisive canonical tragedy in which the Thessalian king Erysichthon (Erysichthon) cuts down a great oak of Demeter's sacred grove and kills the Hamadryad, and Demeter sends the spirit of hunger Limos (Limos) to punish him with eternal hunger so that he ultimately eats himself.

Michael · Archangel — Captain of the Heavenly Host, Vanquisher of Satan

Michael (Hebrew Mikha'el, Greek Mikhael, Latin Michael, Arabic Mikail) is the decisive canonical archangel chief of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — three decisive canonical religions. The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Hebrew 'mi-ka-El' — 'who is like God (quis ut Deus)'. The decisive textual canon is the Old Testament Book of Daniel (Daniel) 10:13, 10:21, and 12:1 of c. 2nd century BCE — 167-164 BCE — the decisive canon in which Michael is 'one of the chief princes' and 'the protector of the children of Israel' — and the New Testament Revelation (Revelation) 12:7-9 of c. 1st century CE — the decisive canon in which Michael had 'war in heaven' and defeated the great dragon (dragon), namely the 'ancient serpent' Satan (Satan), and his minion angels, and threw them out of heaven. The Mikail (Mikail) of the c. 7th century Islamic Qur'an (Qur'an) 2:98 — the angel of rain and plants — is the decisive canonical iconography. The decisive canonical iconography of the warrior angel in armor and helmet, trampling Satan (dragon) with a flaming sword or spear, and holding scales (scales) for weighing souls in one hand.

Raphael · Archangel — Angel of Healing and Guide of Travelers

Raphael (Hebrew Rafa'el, Greek Rhaphael, Latin Raphael, 'healing of God') is the decisive canonical archangel of Judaism and Christianity — two decisive canonical religions. The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Hebrew compound of 'rapha (healing)' and 'El (God)' — 'healing of God'. The decisive textual canon is the apocryphal Book of Tobit (Tobit) 3:17, 5:4-22, 6:1-18, 7:9-17, 8:1-9, 11:1-15, and 12:1-22 of c. 3rd-2nd century BCE — c. 225-175 BCE — the decisive canon in which Raphael, under the alias 'Azariah (Azariah)', accompanied the young Tobiah (Tobiah) on his journey, drove out the demon Asmodeus (Asmodeus), and healed Tobit's (Tobit) blindness with fish gall (gall) — and the apocryphal 1 Enoch (1 Enoch) 9:1, 10:4, 20:3, 40:9, and 71 of c. 3rd-1st century BCE — the decisive canon establishing Raphael as one of the seven archangels or four archangels (along with Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Uriel). The decisive canonical iconography of the angel in travel attire with a walking staff, a fish (Tobit episode) and a vial of medicinal herbs, the accompanying young Tobiah iconography, and green or teal robes.

Uriel · Archangel — Light of God, Angel of Wisdom and Repentance

Uriel (Hebrew Uri'el, Greek Ouriel, Latin Uriel, 'light of God') is the decisive canonical archangel of Jewish apocalyptic literature — apocrypha. The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Hebrew compound of 'ur (light or flame)' and 'El (God)' — 'light of God' or 'fire of God'. The decisive textual canon is the apocryphal 1 Enoch (1 Enoch) 9:1, 10:1-8, 20:2, 21-22, and 33-36 of c. 3rd-1st century BCE — the decisive canon in which Uriel is one of the seven archangels or four archangels (Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel) — and the apocryphal 2 Esdras (2 Esdras, 4 Ezra) 4, 5, and 10 of c. 70-100 CE — the decisive canon in which Uriel taught Ezra (Ezra) the providence of God and the mysteries of the end of times. The decisive canonical iconography in which it was excluded from the Catholic canon at the Council of Rome (Council of Rome) of 745 but is considered the decisive canon in the Eastern Orthodox (Eastern Orthodox), Gnostic (Gnostic), and Christian-comparative traditions. The decisive canonical iconography of the angel holding a flaming sword or torch, the scroll of wisdom (scroll of wisdom), gold or crimson robes, and a shining flame on the forehead or hand.

Metatron · Scribe of Heaven — Voice of God and Recorder of Divine Acts

Metatron (Hebrew Mēṭāṭrōn, Greek Metatrōn) is one of the highest-ranking angels of the Jewish Kabbalah and apocryphal tradition — the decisive canonical iconographic figure called 'the one who stands closest to God', 'Lesser YHVH', 'Prince of the Presence (Sar ha-Panim)', and 'heavenly scribe'. The etymology derives from Greek meta (beyond, near) + thronos (throne) — 'the one who stands beside the throne' — or Greek metator (messenger, guide). Aliases Yahoel, Sar ha-Panim, Sar ha-Olam ('Prince of the World'), Mitatron, and Lesser YHVH are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is 3 Enoch (Sefer Hekhalot) chapters 4-16 of c. 5th-6th century CE in which the human Enoch ascended to heaven and was transformed into Metatron, and Babylonian Talmud Hagigah 15a of the 4th-6th century in which Elisha ben Abuyah (Aher) saw Metatron sitting in heaven and was misled into the 'two powers in heaven' heresy. The decisive Zohar by Moses de Leon of the 1280s — Kabbalah — in which Metatron is the angel of Kether of the Tree of Life (Sephirot), and Metatron (the voice of God) played by Alan Rickman of the film Dogma (directed by Kevin Smith) released in the USA on 12 November 1999 is the 21st-century decisive video canon.

Azrael· Angel of Death Reaper of Souls

Azrael (Hebrew Azra'el, Arabic Azra'il) is the angel of death in Jewish and Islamic traditions — the decisive canon — derived from the Hebrew azra ('help') + el ('God') meaning 'God helps (God helps)' — the decisive canonical vocabulary. Aliases — Malak al-Mawt (Malak al-Mawt, Arabic 'angel of death'), Izra'il, Azra'il, and the reaper-angel — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Azrael in 3 Enoch (3 Enoch, Sefer Hekhalot) of c. 5th-6th century CE, and the decisive canon of Qur'an (Qur'an) 32:11 of the 7th century CE — 'Say: the angel of death (Malak al-Mawt) put in charge of you will surely take your souls; then to your Lord shall you be returned'. The decisive canon as one of the four archangels of Islam (Mikail, Jibril, Israfil, Azrael), and the decisive canon of Muslim tradition that he appears veiled in 70,000 veils when taking souls. The decisive 20th-century comics canon of the black cat Azrael (Azrael) of the wizard Gargamel (Gargamel) in the comic Smurfs (Les Schtroumpfs) by the Belgian Peyo (Peyo, real name Pierre Culliford) from 1958.

Seraphim · Highest Order of the Nine Angelic Choirs — The Burning Ones Around God

Seraphim (Hebrew Səraphim, singular Saraph) is the highest rank of the 9 angelic hierarchies of Judeo-Christian angelology — the decisive canon — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of 'the burning ones' derived from the Hebrew saraph meaning 'to burn'. Aliases — burning ones, fiery angels, guardians of the throne, and together with the Cherubim the two closest ranks to God — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of the vision Isaiah saw in Isaiah (Isaiah) 6:1-7 of c. 8th century BCE in which 6-winged beings flew around God's throne crying 'Holy, holy, holy, Lord of Hosts; the whole earth is full of His glory', and the decisive canon of the first rank of the 9-rank angelic hierarchy in The Celestial Hierarchy (De Coelesti Hierarchia) chapter 7 of Pseudo-Dionysius (Pseudo-Dionysius) of c. 5th-6th century CE. The decisive canon of the Summa Theologica (Summa Theologica) Part I question 108 article 5 of Thomas Aquinas (Thomas Aquinas) of the 13th century, and the decisive canon of the 6-winged Seraph vision and the stigmata (stigmata) of St. Francis of Assisi (St. Francis of Assisi) on Mount La Verna on 14 September 1224.

Cherubim · Second of the Nine Angelic Choirs — Guardians of Divine Wisdom and the Throne

Cherubim (Hebrew kerubim, singular kerub, Greek cheroubin, Latin cherubim) is the 2nd-rank angel after Seraphim (Seraphim) of the 9 ranks of Jewish-Christian angelology — the decisive canon, the decisive canonical iconographic figure who supports the throne of God and transmits divine wisdom. The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary derived from the Akkadian karibu (intercessor) or Aramaic kerub (close), and the influence of the composite iconography of the Assyrian lamassu (lamassu) and shedu (shedu) of bull, human, and eagle is the decisive canon. The decisive textual canon is the Genesis (Bereshit) chapter 3 verse 24 of c. 6th century BCE — the decisive canon of 'the cherubim and the flaming sword that turned every way (lahat ha-herev ha-mithapeketh)' that guarded the way to the Garden of Eden — and Exodus (Shemot) chapter 25 verses 18-22 and chapter 26 verse 31 — the decisive canon of the two gold cherubim on the mercy seat (kapporet) of the Ark of the Covenant (Ark of the Covenant) — and 1 Kings chapter 6 verses 23-28 — the decisive canon of the 10-cubit (about 4.5 m) cherubim of Solomon's temple. The Ezekiel (Yehezkel) chapter 1 verses 5-14 of 593-571 BCE — the decisive canon of the 'four living creatures (chayot, faces of human, lion, ox, and eagle, four wings)' — and chapter 10 — the decisive canon of the cherubim and wheels (ophanim) — and the Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite)'s Celestial Hierarchy (De Coelesti Hierarchia) chapter 7 of c. 5th-6th century CE — the decisive canon as the 2nd rank of the 9 ranks.

Ophanim · Third of the Nine Angelic Choirs — Wheels of God, Throne of Justice

Ophanim (Hebrew Ofannim, singular Ofan) is the third-rank angel of the 9-rank angelic hierarchy of Judeo-Christian angelology — the decisive canon — the decisive canonical iconographic figure derived from the Hebrew 'ofan' meaning 'wheel' in plural form. Aliases — Galgalim ('wheels'), Thrones (Latin Throni), wheels of God's chariot (Merkabah, Merkabah) — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Ezekiel (Ezekiel) 1:15-21 and 10:9-13 of c. 6th century BCE in which beside the Cherubim are giant wheels with a wheel within a wheel (Wheel within a wheel) whose rims are full of eyes, and the decisive canon of Daniel (Daniel) 7:9 of c. 2nd century BCE — the 'wheels of burning fire' throne of the 'Ancient of Days'. The decisive theological canon of the third rank Thrones (Thrones) of the 9-rank angelic hierarchy in The Celestial Hierarchy (De Coelesti Hierarchia) chapter 7 of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite of c. 5th-6th century CE, and the decisive canon of the Thrones in the Summa Theologica (Summa Theologica) Part I question 108 of Thomas Aquinas (Thomas Aquinas) of the 13th century. The decisive 14th-century canon is the decisive canon of the third rank Thrones of the 9-rank angelic hierarchy in Dante Alighieri's (Dante Alighieri) Divine Comedy (Divina Commedia) Paradiso (Paradiso) Canto 28 lines 103-105 of c. 1320.

Lucifer · Bearer of Light — Fallen Archangel, Prince of Pride

Lucifer (Latin Lucifer — 'light-bringer', Hebrew Heylel — 'morning star') is the most famous fallen angel in Christian tradition — the decisive canon — and the Prince of Pride (Pride, Superbia) of the Seven Deadly Sins — originally God's most glorious archangel, who fell from heaven due to pride in seeking to make himself equal to God and became the King of Hell — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. Aliases — Satan (Satan), Morning Star (Morning Star, Lucifer), Heylel ben Shahar (Heylel ben Shahar), Helel (Helel), the fallen archangel, the King of Hell — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive Old Testament canon is the decisive origin canon of Isaiah (Isaiah) 14:12-15 of c. 6th century BCE — 'How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer (Heylel ben Shahar), son of the morning! how art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations'. The decisive literary canon is the decisive canon of Dante Alighieri's (Dante Alighieri) Divine Comedy (Divina Commedia) Inferno (Inferno) Canto 34 of c. 1308-1320 — the giant with three faces and six wings frozen up to his chest in the ice of Cocytus (Cocytus) — and John Milton's (John Milton) Paradise Lost (Paradise Lost) of 1667 — Lucifer as the tragic hero of free will.

Satan · The Adversary — Prince of Wrath, Accuser of Humanity

Satan (Hebrew Satan, Greek Satanas, Latin Satanas, Aramaic Satana) is the supreme demon of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition — the decisive canon, the decisive canonical vocabulary derived from the Hebrew 'satan' meaning 'adversary' or 'accuser'. The aliases Diabolos (Greek 'slanderer'), devil, Lucifer ('light-bearer'), Belial, Beelzebub, Iblis (Islamic Satan), old serpent, great dragon, and prince of darkness are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Job (Job) chapters 1:6-12 and 2:1-7 of c. 6th-4th century BCE — the adversary (the-satan, with the definite article) who tested Job (Job) in the heavenly court — and the decisive canon of Zechariah (Zechariah) 3:1-2 of c. 6th-5th century BCE — Satan accusing Joshua (Joshua). The decisive canon of the 40-day temptation of Jesus Christ in the wilderness in Matthew (Matthew) 4:1-11 and Luke (Luke) 4:1-13 of the 1st century CE, the decisive canon of the heavenly war in Revelation (Revelation) 12:7-9 in which the great dragon Satan was cast down by the archangel Michael, and the decisive canon of the thousand-year binding and the final eternal lake of fire in 20:1-3 and 20:10.

Beelzebub · Lord of the Flies — Prince of Gluttony

Beelzebub (Hebrew Baʿal-Zəvuv, Greek Beelzeboul, Latin Beelzebub) is the great demon of the Judeo-Christian tradition — the decisive canon — derived from the Hebrew Baal-zebub meaning 'Lord of the Flies' — the decisive canonical iconographic figure originating in the city of Ekron of Philistia where the god 'Baal-Zebul (Baal-Zebul, prince Baal)' was worshipped, with Jews scornfully changing the name to 'Lord of the Flies (zebub = fly)'. Aliases — Beelzeboul, Lord of the Flies, prince of devils, and Archduke of 'Gluttony (Gula, Gluttony)' among the Seven Deadly Sins — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of 2 Kings 1:2-16 of c. 6th-4th century BCE in which the king of Israel Ahaziah (Ahaziah) fell ill and sent messengers to consult Beelzebub of Ekron, only to be rebuked by Elijah (Elijah), and the decisive canon of Matthew (Matthew) 12:24-27, Luke (Luke) 11:15-19, and Mark (Mark) 3:22 of the 1st century CE in which the Pharisees slandered Christ by saying 'he casts out demons by Beelzebub, the prince of demons'. The decisive 17th-century English-literary canon of John Milton's (John Milton) Paradise Lost (Paradise Lost) Book 1 lines 78-81 of 1667 — the fallen angel next to Lucifer — and the decisive 20th-century English-literary canon of William Golding's (William Golding) novel Lord of the Flies (Lord of the Flies) of 1954.

Asmodeus · Prince of Lust — Demon Who Destroys Marriages

Asmodeus (Hebrew Ashmedai, Greek Asmodaios, Latin Asmodaeus) is the great demon of lust, marriage destruction, and wrath of Jewish apocrypha and Christian tradition — the decisive canon, the decisive canonical iconographic figure derived from the Persian Zoroastrian Aeshma-daeva (Aeshma-daeva, 'wrath demon'). The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Zoroastrian Avesta (Avesta) Aeshma (Aeshma, 'wrath') + daeva (daeva, 'evil god'), and the Hebrew Ashmedai (Ashmedai) and Greek Asmodaios are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the Book of Tobit (Book of Tobit) chapter 3 verse 8 of c. 200 BCE Jewish apocrypha — the decisive canon of the lust demon who killed Sarah's (Sarah) seven husbands on their wedding night — and chapter 3 verse 17, chapter 6 verses 14-18, and chapter 8 verses 1-3 — the decisive canon in which the archangel Raphael (Raphael) made Tobias (Tobias) burn fish liver and heart on incense, and the smoke drove Asmodeus away and Raphael bound him in upper Egypt. The Testament of Solomon (Testament of Solomon) chapter 5 of c. 1st-3rd century CE — the decisive canon of the lust towards Solomon's wife — and the Lesser Key of Solomon (Lesser Key of Solomon, Ars Goetia) of c. 17th century — the decisive canon as the 32nd king of the 72 demons.

Belphegor · Prince of Sloth — He Who Ruins Humanity Through Laziness

Belphegor (Latin Belphegor, English Belphegor) is the demon of Judeo-Christian tradition — the decisive canon — and the Prince of Sloth (Sloth, Acedia) — one of the Seven Deadly Sins — derived from the Hebrew Baal-Peor (Baal-Peor, 'Lord of Peor') — the decisive canonical vocabulary — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the Moabite god of the Old Testament era personified from the Judeo-Christian perspective. Aliases — Baal-Peor (Baal-Peor), Belfagor (Belfagor), Balphegor (Balphegor), Prince of Sloth — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive Old Testament canon is the decisive origin canon of Numbers (Numbers) 25:1-9 of c. 6th-4th century BCE — 'And Israel abode in Shittim, and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab. And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods: and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods. And Israel joined himself unto Baal-Peor (Baal-Peor): and the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel'. The decisive satirical literary canon is the decisive canon of Novella di Belfagor Arcidiavolo (Novella di Belfagor Arcidiavolo) by the Italian Niccolò Machiavelli (Niccolò Machiavelli) of 1518.

Bael · First of Solomon's 72 Spirits — King of the East

Bael (Latin Bael, English Bael, Hebrew Baal — 'lord') is the 1st of the 72 demons in Book 1 Ars Goetia (Ars Goetia) of the 17th-century grimoire — the decisive canon — The Lesser Key of Solomon (Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis) — and the King of the East (King of the East), commanding 66 legions (legions) of demons — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. The etymological origin is the decisive origin canon of Baal (Baal, son of El), the Canaanite and Phoenician god of fertility, thunder, and war, in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle (Ugaritic Baal Cycle, KTU 1.1-1.6) of c. 13th century BCE — the decisive canonical vocabulary degraded by the later Judeo-Christian tradition to a foreign idol. Aliases — Baal (Baal), Baal Hadad (Baal Hadad), Baal-Zebub (Baal-Zebub), Baal-Peor (Baal-Peor), King of the East — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive Old Testament canon is the decisive canon of the confrontation between Elijah and the 450 prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel in 1 Kings (1 Kings) 18:17-40 of c. 6th-4th century BCE.

Paimon · Ninth of Solomon's 72 Spirits — King of Arts and Knowledge

Paimon (Latin Paimon, English Paimon) is the powerful king of the 9th rank among the 72 demons in Book 1 of the 17th-century grimoire — the decisive canon — The Lesser Key of Solomon (Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis) — Ars Goetia (Ars Goetia) — commanding 200 legions (legions) of demons — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. Aliases — Paimaim, King Paimon, King of Camels, King of Arts and Sciences — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Paimon in Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (Pseudomonarchia Daemonum) of Johann Weyer (Johann Weyer) of 1563 and the decisive canon of the 9th rank king of the 72 demons in Book 1 Ars Goetia (Ars Goetia) of The Lesser Key of Solomon (Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis) of the 17th century. The decisive grimoire canon of Paimon in The Magus (The Magus) of Francis Barrett (Francis Barrett) of 1801 of England, and the decisive art canon of the Paimon iconography depicting a crowned man on a camel in the Dictionnaire Infernal (Dictionnaire Infernal) of Collin de Plancy (Collin de Plancy) of 1863, and the decisive 21st-century film canon of 'Hail Paimon' in the film Hereditary (Hereditary) (directed by Ari Aster (Ari Aster), A24) released in the USA on 8 June 2018.

Astaroth · 29th of Solomon's 72 Spirits — Great Duke

Astaroth (Latin Astaroth, English Astaroth) is the demon of the Great Duke rank, 29th of the 72 demons in Book 1 Ars Goetia (Ars Goetia) of the 17th-century grimoire — the decisive canon — The Lesser Key of Solomon (Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis) — commanding 40 legions (legions) of demons — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. The etymological origin is the decisive canonical vocabulary of Ishtar (Ishtar, Akkadian), the Mesopotamian goddess of fertility, love, and war of c. 2000 BCE → Phoenician and Canaanite Astarte (Astarte) → the foreign goddess Ashtoreth (Ashtoreth) of the Old Testament → the male duke-demon of the 16th-17th century grimoires. Aliases — Ashtoreth (Ashtoreth), Astarte (Astarte), Ishtar (Ishtar), the Duke of liberal sciences — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Astaroth in Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (Pseudomonarchia Daemonum) of Johann Weyer (Johann Weyer) of 1563, and the decisive canon of the 29th rank Great Duke of the 72 demons in Book 1 Ars Goetia of The Lesser Key of Solomon (Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis) of the 17th century. The decisive 19th-century art canon of the Astaroth iconography on the wicked dragon in the Dictionnaire Infernal (Dictionnaire Infernal) of Collin de Plancy of 1818, and the decisive 21st-century global game canon of Astaroth (in the form of a golem wielding a giant axe) in the Soulcalibur (Soul Edge/Soulcalibur) series by Japanese Namco (Namco) from 1995.

Mammon · Demon of Wealth — Prince of Greed

Mammon (Aramaic Māmōnā mamona, Greek Mamōnas, Latin Mammona) is the demon of wealth and greed of the Christian tradition — the decisive canon, the decisive canonical iconographic figure — the decisive canon, derived from the Aramaic 'mamona' meaning 'wealth, money', originally a common noun but personified in the New Testament to become an idol opposed to God. The aliases Mamōnas, prince of riches, king of gold, and Archduke of 'Greed (Avaritia, Greed)' among the Seven Deadly Sins are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of 'No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and Mammon (You cannot serve God and Mammon)' in Matthew (Matthew) 6:24 of the 1st century CE New Testament and the same verse in Luke (Luke) 16:13 and the 'mammon of unrighteousness (mammon of unrighteousness)' in 16:9-11. The decisive canon of the fallen angel who always gazed at the golden pavements even in heaven in Paradise Lost (Paradise Lost) Book 1 lines 678-688 of John Milton (John Milton) of 1667.

Orobas · 55th of Solomon's 72 Spirits — Horse-Headed Prince of Truth

Orobas (Latin Orobas) is the 55th demon of the 72 demons of Solomon (Goetia) — the decisive canon — of the rank of Great Prince — the decisive canonical iconographic figure with a horse's head and a human body, or a complete horse, an honest demon who never lies. Aliases — Orobas (Orobas), Prince of Truth, Horse-headed Demon, Gentlemanly Demon, 55th Spirit of Solomon — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, 'The False Hierarchy of Demons') by the German physician and occult writer Johann Weyer (Johann Weyer, 1515-1588) of 1577, and the decisive canon of Spirit 55 Orobas in Part I Goetia of the Lesser Key of Solomon (Lesser Key of Solomon, Lemegeton) of the 17th century. The decisive uniqueness canon is the decisive canon as a 'gentlemanly' demon clearly favorable to the summoner unlike the other 71 demons and never lying — the decisive canon summoned in Solomonic magic to receive the oracle of truth.

Gabriel · Archangel — Messenger of God, Bearer of the Annunciation

Gabriel (Hebrew Gavri'el, Greek Gabriel, Latin Gabriel, Arabic Jibril) is the decisive canonical archangel of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — three decisive canonical religions. The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Hebrew 'God's strength' (geber + El) or 'man of God'. The decisive textual canon is the Old Testament Book of Daniel (Daniel) 8:15-26 of c. 2nd century BCE — 167-164 BCE — the decisive canon in which Gabriel interprets Daniel's vision — and 9:21-27 — the decisive canon of the 70-weeks prophecy. The Gospel of Luke (Luke) 1:11-20 of the c. 1st-century-CE New Testament — the decisive canon in which Gabriel announces the conception of John the Baptist to the priest Zechariah (Zechariah) — and 1:26-38 — the decisive canon of the Annunciation, the announcement of Jesus's conception to Mary — are the decisive canon. The Qur'an (Qur'an) 2:97-98 of c. 7th century — 610-632 CE — the decisive canon in which Jibril (Jibril) revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad over 23 years — is the decisive canonical iconography. The decisive canonical iconography of the graceful angel holding a lily, the golden trumpet, white silk robes, and large white feathered wings.

Sandalphon · Angel of Prayer — Bearer of Mortal Prayers to God

Sandalphon (Hebrew Sandalphon, Greek Sandalphōn) is the highest-ranking angel paired with Metatron in the Jewish Kabbalah tradition — the decisive canon — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the 'angel of prayer (angel of prayer)' who receives human prayers and weaves them into garlands (wreath) to offer to God. The etymology derives from Greek synadelphos — 'co-brother (co-brother)' — the decisive canonical vocabulary meaning Metatron's twin brother. Aliases — Sanadalphon, angel of Malkuth, angel of prayer, angel of music, and foot of the Tree of Life — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Babylonian Talmud Hagigah 13b of the 4th-6th century in which Sandalphon stands 500 years' worth of height above the other angels, and the decisive canon of Sandalphon in 3 Enoch (3 Enoch, Sefer Hekhalot) of c. 5th-6th century CE. The decisive canon of the angel of Malkuth (Malkuth, Kingdom) of the Kabbalah Tree of Life (Sephirot) in the Zohar (Zohar) by Moses de Leon of the 1280s, and the decisive 19th-century English and German literary canon of Heinrich Heine's (Heinrich Heine) poem Sandalphon of 1851 and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow) poem Sandalphon (Sandalphon) of 1858.

Baphomet · Goat-Headed Idol — Symbol of the Occult and Conspiracy

Baphomet (Latin Baphometh, English Baphomet) is the decisive canonical iconographic figure of the name of the idol that the Knights Templar (Knights Templar) were alleged to have worshipped at the trials of the late Middle Ages of the 14th century — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of an androgynous seated figure with a goat's head and a human body, with an inverted pentagram on the forehead, bat wings, and a torch. Aliases — Baphomet (Baphomet), Goat of Mendes, Sabbatic Goat, Goat-headed Idol, Symbol of Esotericism and Conspiracy — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive origin canon is the decisive origin canon of becoming famous after King Philip IV (Philip IV, 'the Fair') of France tortured the Templars on 13 October 1307 to extract confessions that they worshipped 'Baphomet' to destroy the Templars, and the decisive canon of the iconography of the 'Baphomet de Mendes' in Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie (Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie, published 1854-1856) of 1856 by the French occultist Eliphas Levi (Eliphas Levi, 1810-1875).

Leviathan· Vast Sea Monster Prince of Envy

Leviathan (Hebrew Liwyāṯān, Greek Leviathan, Latin Leviathan) is the great sea monster of the Old Testament — the decisive canon, the demon that developed into the Archduke of Envy in the Christian tradition — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of 'the coiling one', derived from the Hebrew 'lawah' meaning 'to twist, coil'. The aliases Liwyāṯān, Lotan (Ugaritic prototype), sea serpent, piercing serpent, and nachash bariach are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of the 7-headed sea chaos monster Lotan (Lotan, ltn) in the Baal Cycle (Baal Cycle) of Ugarit (Ugarit) of c. 13th century BCE, and the decisive canon of the invincible sea monster that only God could subdue in Job (Job) 41:1-34 (40:25-41:26 in the Hebrew text) of c. 6th-4th century BCE. The decisive canon of the slaying of Leviathan at the 'end of days' in Isaiah (Isaiah) 27:1, Psalm (Psalm) 74:14 and 104:26, and the decisive canon of Leviathan and Behemoth (Behemoth) in the Babylonian Talmud Bava Batra (Bava Batra) 74b-75a of the 4th-6th century.

Ra · Egyptian Sun God — Creator and King of the Gods

Ra (Egyptian Ra or Re, 'sun') is the decisive canonical sun-god, creator, and king of the gods of ancient Egyptian mythology — the Heliopolis (Heliopolis, Egyptian Iunu, 'city of the pillar') theology — and the decisive canonical iconographic figure, who rose by himself from Nun (Nun), the primordial chaos sea, and as the ancestor of the Heliopolis Ennead (Ennead) of Shu (Shu), Tefnut (Tefnut), Geb (Geb), Nut (Nut), Osiris (Osiris), Isis (Isis), Seth (Seth), and Nephthys (Nephthys). The etymology is the decisive canonical vocabulary of the Egyptian Ra ('sun'), and during the New Kingdom 18th dynasty (1550-1292 BCE) he merged with the god Amun of Thebes to become Amun-Ra (Amun-Ra), the supreme god — the decisive canon. The decisive textual canon is the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts) of c. 2400-2300 BCE — Old Kingdom 5th-6th dynasty — the decisive canon of the inside of the pyramids of Unas (Unas, 2375-2345 BCE) and Pepi I (Pepi I) — and the Coffin Texts (Coffin Texts) of c. 2100-1700 BCE Middle Kingdom — and the Book of the Dead (Book of the Dead) and the Amduat (Amduat) of c. 1550 BCE New Kingdom are the decisive canon. The pharaoh's title 'son of Ra (sa-Ra)' and the decisive canonical iconography of a falcon head with sun disc and the Uraeus (Uraeus) cobra.

Abaddon· Angel of Destruction King of the Abyss

Abaddon (Hebrew Avaddon, Greek Apollyōn, Latin Abaddon) is the angel of destruction in the Judeo-Christian tradition — the decisive canon — derived from the Hebrew verb avad meaning 'to perish, destroy' — the decisive canonical iconographic figure of 'destruction (destruction)' and the Greek Apollyon (Apollyōn) meaning 'destroyer (destroyer)'. Aliases — Apollyon, Abaddon, King of the Abyss (Abyss), King of the Locust Swarm — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of Job (Job) 26:6, 28:22, and 31:12 of c. 6th-4th century BCE in which 'Abaddon' is personified as the grave or place of destruction, and the decisive canon of Proverbs (Proverbs) 15:11 and 27:20 and Psalm (Psalm) 88:11. The decisive New Testament canon is the decisive canon of Revelation (Revelation) 9:11 of the 1st century CE — 'And they had a king over them, which is the angel of the bottomless pit (angel of the bottomless pit), whose name in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greek tongue hath his name Apollyon'. The decisive 17th-century English-literary canon of Apollyon's combat with Christian in The Pilgrim's Progress (The Pilgrim's Progress) by John Bunyan (John Bunyan) of 1678.

Osiris · Egyptian King of the Afterlife — God of Resurrection and Abundance

Osiris (Egyptian Wsjr Asar or Usir, Greek Osiris, 'seat of the strong' or 'throne') is the god of the underworld, resurrection, fertility, and grain of ancient Egyptian mythology — the decisive canon, the son of Geb (Geb, earth) and Nut (Nut, sky) of the Heliopolitan Ennead (Ennead), husband of Isis (Isis), who was killed by his brother Seth (Seth), whose dismembered body was gathered and resurrected by Isis, and then became the king of the underworld Duat (Duat) judging the souls of the dead — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. The decisive textual canon is the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts) of c. 2400-2300 BCE — Old Kingdom 5th dynasty — the decisive origin canon of about 200 of the about 759 spells of the pyramid texts of Unas (Unas, reigned 2375-2345 BCE) in Saqqara — and the Coffin Texts (Coffin Texts) of c. 2100-1700 BCE Middle Kingdom — and the Book of the Dead (Book of the Dead) of c. 1550 BCE New Kingdom, especially chapter 125 'Negative Confession (Negative Confession)' — the decisive canon of Osiris's 42 judges. The De Iside et Osiride (De Iside et Osiride) of the Greek Plutarch (Plutarch, c. 46-119) of c. 100 CE of the c. 1st century CE is the most complete decisive Greek-Latin mythological canon.

Lilith · Witch of the Night — Adam's First Wife, Mother of Demons

Lilith (Hebrew Lilith, Latin Lilith) is the female demon of Jewish mythology — the decisive canon — and in some traditions, the 'first woman' formed by God from earth at the same time as Adam, not from his rib, but who, considering herself equal to Adam and refusing to submit to him, left Eden and then united with Satan (Samael) and gave birth to countless demons (Lilim) — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. Aliases — Lilitu (Lilitu, Mesopotamian), Mother of Lilim, Consort of Samael, Night Demoness, Adam's First Wife — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive Old Testament canon is the decisive origin canon of Isaiah (Isaiah) 34:14 of c. 6th century BCE — 'Lilith (Hebrew Lilith), the night creature dwelling with wild beasts'. The decisive Jewish apocryphal canon is the decisive canon of the Alphabet of Ben Sira (Alphabet of Ben Sira) of c. 8th-10th century — the myth of Adam's first wife — and the decisive Kabbalah canon is the decisive canon of Lilith as the consort of Samael (Samael) in the Zohar (Zohar) by Moses de León (Moses de León) of c. 1280.

Isis · Egyptian Goddess of Magic and Motherhood — Goddess of Ten Thousand Names

Isis (Egyptian Iset or Aset, Greek Isis, Latin Isis) is the goddess of magic, healing, motherhood, and kingship of ancient Egyptian mythology — the decisive canon, the daughter of Geb (Geb) and Nut (Nut) of the Heliopolitan Ennead (Ennead), the sister and wife of Osiris (Osiris), and the mother of Horus (Horus) — the decisive canonical iconographic figure. The etymology of the Egyptian Iset (Aset) is 'throne (throne)' — the decisive canon as the personification of the throne — and the aliases Aset (Aset), Auset (Auset), Weret-hekau (Weret-hekau, 'Great Sorceress'), Mut-netjeret (Mut-netjeret, 'Mother of God'), and Anima Versatilis (Anima Versatilis, 'goddess of ten thousand names') are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts) of Unas (Unas) of the Old Kingdom 5th dynasty of c. 2400-2300 BCE, and the decisive canon of 'Isis and the Secret Name of Ra (Isis and the Secret Name of Ra)' of the Turin Papyrus (Turin Papyrus) of the New Kingdom of c. 1250 BCE. The De Iside et Osiride (De Iside et Osiride) of Plutarch (Plutarchos) of c. 100 CE of the c. 1st century CE and the decisive canon of the 'goddess of ten thousand names' in Book 11 of the Metamorphoses (Metamorphoses) of Apuleius (Apuleius) of c. 170 CE.

Horus · Egyptian God of Sky and Kingship — Falcon-Eyed Restorer of Justice

Horus (Egyptian Ḥr Hor, Greek Hōros) is the god of the sky, kingship, and justice of ancient Egyptian mythology — the decisive canon, the son of Osiris (Osiris) and Isis (Isis), the decisive canonical iconographic figure who became the legitimate king of Egypt after an 80-year throne struggle with his uncle Seth (Seth). The etymology of the Egyptian Ḥr is the decisive canonical vocabulary of 'the high one' or 'the distant one', and the aliases Heru (Heru), Hor (Hor), Hor-sa-Iset (Hor-sa-Iset, 'Horus son of Isis'), Hor-wer (Hor-wer, 'Horus the Great'), Hor-akhti (Hor-akhti, 'Horus of the two horizons'), and Harpokrates (Harpokrates, 'Horus the Child') are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts) of Unas (Unas) of the Old Kingdom 5th dynasty of c. 2400-2300 BCE, and the decisive canon of the 80-year struggle of the 'Contendings of Horus and Seth (Contendings of Horus and Seth)' of the Chester Beatty Papyrus I (Chester Beatty Papyrus I) of the New Kingdom 20th dynasty period of Rameses V of c. 1250 BCE. The De Iside et Osiride (De Iside et Osiride) chapters 12-20 and 54-58 of Plutarch (Plutarchos) of c. 100 CE of the Greek 1st century CE — the decisive Greek-Latin canon.

Anubis · Egyptian God — Guardian of Death and Mummification

Anubis (Egyptian Anpu, Greek Anubis) is the underworld god of ancient Egyptian mythology — the decisive canon — who guides the souls of the dead and presides over the mummification (embalming) ritual — the decisive canonical iconographic figure with a jackal's head and a human body, black skin or fur. Aliases — Anpu (Anpu), Imy-ut (Imy-ut, 'He who is in the bandages'), Khenty-amentiu (Khenty-amentiu, 'Foremost of the Westerners'), Wepwawet (Wepwawet) — are the decisive canonical vocabulary. The decisive textual canon is the decisive origin canon of the Pyramid Texts (Pyramid Texts) of Pharaoh Unas (Unas) of Saqqara of the 5th Dynasty of Egypt of c. 2400-2300 BCE, and the decisive canon of Spell 125 of the Book of the Dead (Book of the Dead, Book of Coming Forth by Day) of the New Kingdom of Egypt of c. 1550 BCE. The decisive mythological canon is the decisive canon of the 'Weighing of the Heart' — the decisive canon in which Anubis brings the soul of the deceased to the Hall of Two Truths and weighs his heart against the feather of Maat (Ma'at, goddess of justice) on a scale.

Full-body steel armor of the medieval knight

Plate armor is the full-body armor of the European knight, encasing the wearer from head to foot in shaped steel plates and perfected in the 15th century. Steel plates about 1 to 2 mm thick were hammered to the curve of the body and joined with rivets, hinges, and internal leather straps to cover the whole body, the smooth curved surfaces glancing a descending blade aside. The total weight came to some 20 to 30 kg, but spread evenly over the whole body, so that a trained knight could run, mount a horse, and even roll while wearing it. The gaps the plates could not reach, such as the armpits and groin, were filled with mail, and beneath it all a padded garment (the arming doublet) had to be worn to absorb shock, so that the armor was a whole system. The Italian Milanese and the German Gothic were its two great styles, and since each harness was custom-made, a single set took enormous cost and many months to make.

Broad-brimmed infantry helmet shaped like an inverted pot

The kettle hat (French chapel-de-fer, German Eisenhut) is the open helmet most widely worn by the foot soldier in 12th- to 15th-century Europe, and its name came from the rounded hemispherical skull and the broad brim spread out around it, which together looked like an upturned kettle. Its simple and clever form let the brim catch the arrows and stones that fell from above and the boiling water, the quicklime, and the oil poured down from the wall in a siege, so it suited as nothing else the foot soldier who fought close under the wall. The work of making it was simple enough that any village smith could beat one out, so its price was very low, and it spread widely among the common foot and the citizen militia who could not afford the splendid helmet of the knight. Yet its use was by no means low, for the chronicle of Joinville records that Louis IX of France stood at the Battle of Mansurah in 1250 wearing a chapel-de-fer, and so this hat was worn by men of almost every rank, from the foot soldier to the king.

Transitional armor with iron plates riveted inside fabric

The coat of plates, also known as the pair of plates, is the transitional armor that grew up in Europe from the middle of the 13th century to the late 14th century, in an age in which the mail hauberk alone could no longer take all of the shock of arrows and sword points. Inside a coat of cloth or leather, a number of iron plates large and small were fixed by rivets, and the arms of the family were painted on the outside, so that from without it looked like an ordinary surcoat, but inside hidden plates covered the chest, the back, and the flanks. The order of dressing was set: under it the man wore a thick padded gambeson, and over that the mail hauberk, and over that the coat of plates. These three layers together formed the standard of the 13th-century knight, and with a great helm laid on top, this is the figure of the knight most often shown in the illuminated manuscripts and tomb sculpture of the age.

Armor of small iron plates riveted between fabric layers

A brigandine is an armor made by laying small steel plates between two layers of cloth or leather and fixing them with rivets. The plates are hidden inside, and only the heads of the rivets that hold them show on the outside, in regular rows, which is the brigandine's most distinctive outward feature. A development of the 13th-century coat of plates, it used smaller and more numerous plates to raise both protection and comfort, and its mature form was established in the 14th century. Far cheaper and more flexible than full plate armor, it was favored across many troop types in 14th-to-16th-century Europe, by infantry, lower-ranking knights, and archers alike. The size and arrangement of the plates let the balance of protection and flexibility be adjusted, and the outer fabric could be finished in fine cloth such as velvet for decoration. In East Asia, too, an armor of the same principle, with iron plates riveted inside fabric, developed independently.

Quilted padded defensive garment

A gambeson is a thick padded garment made of many quilted layers of cloth such as linen or cotton. Two layers of cloth are stuffed with wool, tow (scrap flax or hemp fiber), or rag, and quilted in close vertical channels so that a blow is spread and absorbed across the whole garment. It could be worn alone as the armor of a light footsoldier, or under mail or plate as a padded undergarment (the aketon) that cushioned the shock the metal passed through. It came into wide use in Europe around the 11th and 12th centuries and was worn by soldiers of every class throughout the Middle Ages, its protection varying with the quality of the quilting and the number of layers. Surprisingly resistant to cuts and arrows, it was the cheapest and easiest armor to make and yet remarkably cost-effective. In cold country it gave warmth as well, so everyone from levied peasants to knights wore it.

Segmented plate armor of the Roman legions

The lorica segmentata is the segmented plate armor of the ancient Roman legionary, a structure of several curved iron plates, or bands, joined by leather straps and bronze buckles and hooks to enclose the torso and shoulders. Used mainly in the 1st to 3rd century AD, its horizontally overlapping girdle bands and shoulder guards slide as the body moves, like a lobster's shell, to protect it. Stronger against cuts and arrows than mail (the lorica hamata) of the same weight, yet light enough to keep mobility, it could be taken apart into a few sections for carrying on the march. Carved in detail on the reliefs of Trajan's Column, it became the visual symbol of the Roman legion. The name lorica segmentata, however, is not ancient but a later one given in the 16th century, and the name the Romans actually used for it does not survive.

Barrel-shaped helmet enclosing the entire head

The great helm is a fully enclosed European knight’s helmet of the late 12th to 14th century — a cylindrical or bucket-shaped steel canister that encloses the entire head, face, and upper neck. Early versions had a flat top; later ones were rounded or coned into a “sugarloaf” shape to deflect blows. A narrow eye slit (occularium) and a scatter of small breathing holes were the only openings, giving the best protection of its day at the cost of severely limited sight and ventilation. It was not worn against the head directly but pulled over a padded coif, a mail coif, and sometimes a small skullcap (cervelliere), which spread the shock of a blow. Iconic of the crusader and the 13th-century heavy horseman, it was the heavy, solid “battle canister” donned just before the mounted charge.

Flexible armor of interlocked metal rings

Mail, commonly called chainmail today, is a flexible armor made of tens of thousands of small metal rings linked one to another. The most common pattern is 4-in-1, in which each ring passes through four others; good mail had the open ends of each ring pierced and riveted shut, while cheaper work simply butted the ends together. It is thought to have been first made by the Celts around the 4th century BC, and the Roman Empire adopted it as the lorica hamata and spread it across the Mediterranean and Europe. At roughly 10 to 15 kg it was lighter than plate armor, and being flexible as a net it did not greatly hinder the movements of the body. It was highly effective against cuts and slashing blades, but relatively weak against a narrow thrusting point and against the shock of a blunt weapon. For that reason it was standard practice to wear it over a padded garment (the gambeson), so that the two absorbed the impact together.

Framework helmet of crossed metal bands

The spangenhelm is a helmet of segmented construction, made by setting metal bands (the spangen) crossing in an arch to form a framework and filling the gaps between them with metal plates. Usually a brow band and several arching bands meeting at the apex were riveted together to make the skeleton, and the panels between were filled with iron or bronze plates to form a roughly conical shape. A helmet beaten in one piece from a single sheet of iron took great skill, but the spangenhelm, its parts made separately and assembled, could be made far more easily and quickly. For this it was supplied in quantity and became the most common helmet of early-medieval warriors, Germanic, Frankish, Byzantine, and Viking alike. The form with a nasal covering the nose was the most common, and some had cheek plates or a mail curtain covering the back added. Because the parts were made separately, several metals could be mixed, and countless variants exist by region and age.

Tubular forearm armor of the medieval knight

The vambrace is the plate armor that wraps the forearm in a tube, a core part of the arm defense of the European knight and heavy infantryman in the 14th to 16th centuries. Its name comes from the Old French 'avant-bras', meaning fore-arm. Two plates, each wrapping the inner and outer of the forearm, were joined on one side by a hinge and on the other by a catch, so that it commonly opened to put the arm in and closed to fasten. The vambrace was not used alone but functioned as a part of an integrated arm defense, forming a set with the rerebrace covering the upper arm and the couter covering the elbow, joining shoulder to wrist without a gap. The material was usually plate steel, but cheaper forms made of hardened (boiled) leather, cuir bouilli, also existed as means allowed. On the shield-bearing arm, where the shield took the place of defense, there was also an asymmetric practice of omitting that vambrace or replacing it with a lighter material.

Curved rectangular shield of the Roman legions

The scutum is the iconic large curved shield of the Roman legionary, its most marked feature a semi-cylindrical curve about 100 to 120 cm tall and 60 cm wide that wraps around the whole body. On a base of plywood, thin wooden boards glued in several cross-grained layers, it was covered with leather and cloth, the edge reinforced, and finished with an iron boss (the umbo) at the center. The umbo protected the hand gripping the horizontal handle behind it and also served as an offensive boss to ram and strike the enemy. The surviving example excavated nearly whole at Dura-Europos in Syria confirms this very plywood-and-leather construction. The true power of the scutum showed in the testudo (tortoise) formation, a mobile shield wall in which soldiers pressed their shields close to the front and overhead to stop arrows and missiles. Its combination with the gladius, the short stabbing sword, blocking with the shield and stabbing through the gaps, was the foundation of the Roman military power that ruled the Mediterranean for centuries.

Classic triangular shield of the medieval knight

The heater shield is the standard shield used by the European knight in the 13th to 15th centuries, marked by an inverted-triangle shape, wide at the top and tapering to a point at the bottom. The name 'heater' is a later term, from its resemblance to an old clothes iron (a heater), for in the Middle Ages it was simply called a shield. It is a form shrunk from the large kite shield used in the 11th and 12th centuries, the lower part that had covered the leg becoming unnecessary as leg armor developed. About 50 to 70 cm tall, it could be handled easily with one hand, and was made in a layered structure of wooden boards covered with several layers of leather and cloth, the edge reinforced with a metal rim. Above all, the face of the shield became the chief field for painting the coat of arms, letting a knight be recognized on the battlefield and tying directly into the development of medieval heraldry. After the 15th century, as plate armor came to cover the whole body, it gradually declined on the battlefield, but it continued in use in the mounted joust.

Articulated metal glove of the medieval knight

The gauntlet is the metal glove worn by the European knight in the 14th to 16th centuries to guard the hand and wrist, the intricate defense that takes the end of the plate arm harness, the hand. At its heart is the joining of several small plates (lames) at each finger joint, riveted so the fingers and fist can flex freely. The wrist is wrapped in a wide cuff that joins to the vambrace, and the back of the hand is covered with plate, while the inside of the palm is left as a leather glove so the hand can grip a weapon. It divides broadly into the hourglass gauntlet, covering the back of the hand with a single wide plate, and the fingered gauntlet, wrapping each finger separately. Because of the conflicting demands of securing the grip and free movement of the weapon hand while also having a seamless defense, the gauntlet was reckoned the hardest piece of the whole armor to make.

Protective armor for military canines

War dog armor is the small set of armor made after the harness of a man for the large dog that was led out to war, and stands as one of the oldest pieces of war gear that the human hand ever laid on the body of a beast. The most common form is the spiked iron collar bound together with a body plate of mail or hardened leather over chest and back, and small cloth-faced panels at the shoulder and flank. The spiked collar served not one but two ends, for it covered the dog's thick neck against the point of an enemy's sword and the teeth of a wolf, and as the dog charged in, the spikes themselves did the work of a weapon. The same form ran from the Molossus of ancient Rome to the alaunt and the mastiff of medieval Europe, and on to the Spanish mastiff of the New World conquest of the 16th century, and the same line lives on today in the bulletproof vests of the war dogs of the United States Naval Special Warfare and the police dogs of many lands, and so makes the rare line in which an armor of a beast outlived an armor of a man.

Small fist-held round shield for active defense

The buckler is a small round shield about 20 to 40 cm in diameter, an active defensive tool held in the fist by a handle behind the raised metal dome (the boss) at the center. Unlike a large shield strapped to the arm to cover the body, the buckler was worked with a free wrist to glance a blow aside rather than block it head-on, to strike and push the opponent's weapon away or wind it up and make an opening. It also covered the sword hand, so it was a tool of attack and defense in one, blocking while at the same time mastering the enemy's blade. The 'sword and buckler' technique used with a sword was a core field of medieval European fencing, and several fencing manuals on it survive. Often made from a single sheet of metal, it was cheap, and being small enough to hang from the belt, it was used widely not only by professional warriors but as a self-defense sidearm of the medieval townsman.

Full-body armor for the war horse

Horse barding is the full-body armor made to guard the warhorse of the medieval European knight, a top-grade piece of war gear famed for craft and cost no less than the knight's own harness. Five parts come together to wrap the horse completely: the chanfron over the head, the crinet over the neck, the peytral over the chest, the flanchard over the flanks, and the crupper over the haunches. It began in the 12th century as a mail trapper laid over a cloth caparison, and by the 15th century a full plate barding of two smooth shells wrapping chest and rump was complete, its weight reaching 30 to 40 kilograms. Together with the knight's own armor it meant that one horse had to carry more than 100 kilograms, so the barding was usually put on only just before battle and stripped off on the march to be carried by another horse. Its price matched a knight's harness, so only the highest nobility could afford it, and so the barding stood as a symbol of both the splendor and the limits of medieval mounted war.

Close-fitting Italian helmet of the 15th century

The armet is the close-fitting battle helmet that grew up in 15th-century Italy. Its mark is a streamlined, rounded skull that follows the curve of the head, with a pair of cheek pieces that hinge open inward from each side and shut at the chin to form a single closed shell. Unlike the earlier bascinet, which carried a mail aventail at the neck, the armet's two cheek pieces meet beneath the chin and lock at one point, covering head and neck-sides with one face of plate without a single mail ring. On its front a visor is set on hinges, lifted upward, so that in combat it could be closed with only a narrow sight slit left and in camp it could be raised to set sight and breath free at once. By the late 15th century the armet was the standard headpiece of the Italian white harness, and the form polished by the masters of northern Italy, above all the Missaglia workshop of Milan, is the very face of the Renaissance knight as we picture him today.

Large kite-shaped shield of the Norman knight

The kite shield is the great shield carried by the knight of 10th- to 13th-century Europe, and it took its name from its kite-like form, rounded at the top and tapering to a long point at the bottom. Standing about 100 to 120 centimeters high, on horseback it covered the rider from the left shoulder down to the knee with a single face, and so it served as a single wall to catch the spears and arrows of the enemy on the left in the heavy mounted charge that the Norman knight set as his way. A core of light wood, mostly lime and willow, laid in cross-glued planks, was covered with hide and bound at the rim with an iron strip, and on the inside were fastened the enarmes, the straps for the arm, and the guige, the strap for the shoulder, so that it could be borne well. On its face was painted, more and more clearly with time, the arms of the family, so that the knight, his face hidden under mail and helm, could be known from afar, and so the kite shield also served as the very surface on which European heraldry took shape. It is in the Bayeux Tapestry of the Battle of Hastings of 1066 that it is most clearly seen, borne alike by Norman knight and Anglo-Saxon housecarl.

Mitten-style metal gauntlet with unified finger shell

The mitten gauntlet is one branch of the metal glove that the knight of 14th- and 15th-century Europe set on his hand, and took its name from the form in which only the thumb stood apart while the four fingers were bound together within a single metal shell. While the finger gauntlet that grew up at the same time covered all five fingers each on its own, the mitten gauntlet covered four fingers in a single face with hardly a gap between the knuckles, so that the grain of the protection over that face was a little thicker and unbroken compared to the finger gauntlet. The hand of the maker took less work at one place, so the price of a single pair was lighter, and so in the early 14th century, when the full plate harness was just taking root, almost every knight set the same shape on his hand. Despite the great fault that the fine play of five fingers each on its own was held back, the same shape fit a spear, a poleaxe, or a flail, in which only the grip needed to be sure, and so it held firm in the seat of the tournament until the late 15th century.

Roman legionary chainmail armor

Lorica hamata is the armor that the Roman legion wore the longest, and the very Latin name, hamata, comes from hamus, the hook, meaning the cuirass set of hooked rings. Small iron rings, each linked into four neighbors, were woven together as if into cloth, with one row of rings riveted shut and the next row punched solid alternating, and this weave is its sharpest mark. A single suit was made of as few as 20,000 and as many as 30,000 rings, and on the shoulders a doubled layer was added to make a strong seat against the blow falling from above. The lorica segmentata of laminar plate is the best-known mark of Rome in film and period drama, but in truth the hamata took root much earlier and lived much longer, and was worn alike by the auxiliaries, the cavalry, and many of the legionaries. A single suit weighed about 10 to 15 kilograms, not far above the segmentata, and with the great advantage that a cut ring could be replaced on the spot in camp, the hamata took its place as the most practical single piece of armor in the field.

Crested open helmet of the Spanish conquistadors

The morion (Spanish morrion) is the open helmet that grew up in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, and its mark is the high comb that rises down the middle of the skull and the broad brim that comes to a point at front and back. The face is wholly open, so that sight, breath, and hearing are far better than under a closed helmet, and the helmet suited the long marches and field labor of the 16th-century army. The high middle comb is not mere decoration but a piece of structural reinforcement that turned aside the downward blow of a sword or a flail, and the broad brim covered the shoulder and neck against arrows and stones dropping from above. Its simple form let it be beaten out in large numbers, and so it became the standard headgear of the Spanish tercio, and through the colonial garrisons of the New World and the guards of court in Europe it passed on, until even today the Pontifical Swiss Guard at the Vatican wears the polished morion as part of its ceremonial.

Pointed medieval helmet with detachable visor

The bascinet is the standard helmet of the European knight in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its skull rises to a point, designed so that a blow coming down from above slides off the sloping surface. Around the lower edge a curtain of mail (the aventail) was hung by small staples (vervelles) to cover the neck, shoulders, and nape. At the front a visor that could be opened or removed was mounted, so that it was kept open for vision and breathing at most times and lowered to guard the face in the thick of battle. Thus, while it carried on the protection of the great helm, it greatly improved sight and breathing, and in the mid-14th century it swiftly replaced the great helm to become the most common helmet of the late Middle Ages. Many variants existed by the form of the visor, the most famous being the pointed, snout-like 'hounskull' or pig-faced visor.

Large standing shield for crossbowmen

The pavise is the great rectangular shield favored by the crossbowmen of 14th- and 15th-century Europe, a defense so large that, at 120 to 150 centimeters in height, it could hide almost the whole height of a man. Its body of wooden planks was covered with canvas and a ground of gesso on which the arms of the city or the figure of a saint were painted, and it narrowed toward the top and bore at the bottom a small prop so that it could be set up and stand on its own on the ground. Because the crossbow took long to span again after each shot, a great shield to cover the whole body of the shooter during that time was needed, and the pavise filled that place. Tradition holds that its name came from the Italian city of Pavia, and it first took root among the crossbowmen of Genoa and Lombardy, but soon spread across the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia, leaving its most famous image as the row of shields set in front of the wagon fort of the Hussite Czech infantry.

Lightweight armor of hardened leather

Leather armor is the branch of light armor made by hardening the hide of a beast at one seat, and within it the European cuir bouilli, 'boiled leather,' is the best-known. Despite the name, cuir bouilli was not made by boiling proper, but by setting the hide in warm water of about 70 to 80 degrees Celsius, or in wax or oil, so that the hide grew hard at the same seat while keeping its grain and some of its softness. Hardened by the same method, leather gained at one seat a hardness near that of wood, while remaining much lighter and quieter than mail and plate, and so suited the seat of scouting, ambush, and a light march. The figure often drawn in films and games, of a man wrapped from head to knee in a suit of leather alone, is rather more swollen than the seat in true history. The commonest seat of leather armor was as part of a single great suit, the couter and the poleyn laid over mail at elbow and knee, the small scales of the Mongol and the Japanese, the jack of plates with small iron plates riveted on leather, and a single suit of leather covering a man from head to knee at one seat was rare.

The versatile polearm combining axe, spear, and hook

The halberd is a two-handed polearm that unites an axe blade, a thrusting spike, and a hook (fluke) in a single head, about 150–200 cm long and 2.5–3.5 kg. One weapon thus performs all three actions — cutting (axe), thrusting (spike), and hooking (fluke) — and 14th-century Swiss mountain infantry developed it to meet armored cavalry. Metal strips (langets) ran down the haft so an enemy could not simply lop the head off by cutting the shaft. It was the core infantry anti-cavalry weapon of 15th–17th-century Europe and, above all, the emblem of the Swiss mercenary and the German Landsknecht. The sharp hook opposite the blade pulled riders from the saddle or caught a gap in the armor to drag them down.

The quintessential two-handed sword of medieval Europe

The longsword is the two-handed straight sword most widely used in Europe from the 13th to the 17th century. With a blade of about 90 to 130 cm and a long grip of 20 to 30 cm, it can be handled in one hand or two, and so it is also called the bastard sword or the hand-and-a-half sword. Its traits are a straight double-edged blade, a cruciform guard, and a heavy pommel, and thanks to the balance of the pommel, which sets the point of balance about 10 cm forward of the guard, its handling is excellent. Its total weight is about 1.1 to 1.8 kg, far lighter than commonly imagined. It is a versatile weapon equipped with a wide range of techniques: cuts and thrusts, of course, but also half-swording, gripping the blade to thrust, and the Mordschlag, striking down with the pommel.

Humanity's oldest weapon

The spear is the oldest and most universal weapon in human history. A simple thing of a wooden shaft about 150 to 250 cm with a metal head, or in the Stone Age a head of stone or bone, it was so easy and cheap to make that it was the first weapon any civilization took in hand. The simple act of thrusting alone was enough to be effective, so the training was short, and used in a dense formation it let the strength of the group make up for the want of individual skill. Above all, the essence of the spear lies in distance: the long shaft reaches first, before the enemy can close, mastering by reach a foe armed with sword or dagger. From the Greek phalanx to the Viking shield wall to the medieval militia, it was the core weapon of nearly every army in history.

The spiked ball weapon of medieval warfare

The morning star is an impact weapon with a round head set with several metal spikes — a spiked, ball-shaped head on a wooden or metal shaft. Its name comes from the German Morgenstern ('morning star'), the spikes radiating outward likened to a star or the sun. It delivers blunt shock and spike puncture at once, crushing mail or padded armor while also piercing it. Cheap and easy to make — a club studded with nails or iron spikes — it was widely used by medieval infantry and peasant or town militias. Its forms ranged from short one-handed clubs to long two-handed versions.

The massive two-handed sword of German Landsknechts

The Zweihander is the great two-handed sword wielded only by the elite Doppelsoldner, the double-pay men, among the German Landsknecht mercenaries of the 16th century. About 150 to 180 cm in total length and 2 to 3.5 kg in weight, it is more than twice the size of an ordinary one-handed sword. Its most distinctive feature is the Parierhaken, the parrying hooks: a pair of lugs jutting from the blade that catch an enemy weapon or hook it aside. The section of blade above these hooks, the ricasso, is left unsharpened so it can be wrapped in leather or gripped bare-handed, allowing half-swording, holding the sword short to handle it like a spear at close quarters. Long and heavy as it was, a single sweep could beat aside several pike shafts at once.

The mechanized ranged weapon of the medieval era

The crossbow is a ranged weapon that lays a bow horizontally on a stock, the tiller, and holds the drawn string until a trigger releases it. Unlike an ordinary bow, it can deliver great power after relatively short training rather than a lifetime of practice, and so it is often called a democratized weapon. In medieval Europe it was widely used as an infantry weapon and as the mainstay of wall defense. Early prods were composite, of wood, horn, and sinew glued together, but from the 14th century the steel prod was introduced and greatly raised the draw weight and the penetration. The bolt, or quarrel, that answers to the arrow is shorter and heavier than an ordinary arrow and delivered strong penetration at close range.

An axe designed specifically for combat

The battle axe is an axe designed specifically for war. Unlike the everyday axe for splitting wood or felling trees, its head is light and its edge broad and thin, so that it bites deep even as it is swung fast. With a blade of about 15 to 30 cm and a total length of about 60 to 120 cm, it is handled in one hand or two. Each age and region had its own form: the long two-handed Dane axe of the Vikings, the throwing francisca of the Franks, and the mounted sagaris of the Scythians are the chief examples. The hooking technique, in which the lower horn of the blade, the beard, catches the top of an enemy's shield and pulls it down to nullify his defense, is characteristic, and being simpler and cheaper to make than a sword, it was widely issued.

The curved cavalry sword for slashing

The sabre is the standard sword of European cavalry from the 17th to the 19th century, marked by a gently curved single-edged blade about 80–90 cm long and a D-shaped knuckle guard that encloses the whole hand. The curve of the blade is optimized for the slash — the draw cut delivered while riding at full gallop — leaving a deep wound in the instant of the charge. Descended from the curved swords of 17th-century Eastern European and Hungarian cavalry, it spread across Western Europe and, in the Napoleonic era, became the main weapon of the cavalry of France, Britain, Prussia, and every major power. About 900 g–1.1 kg and wielded in one hand, it symbolizes the 'age of cavalry' alongside the gaudy uniforms of the light horse. The sabre event of modern fencing descends from it.

The cavalry charge weapon of the mounted knight

The lance is the core weapon of the medieval cavalry charge: a horse-only spear of a long wooden shaft about 300–400 cm tipped with a steel head. A vamplate (conical hand guard) at the middle of the shaft absorbs the shock and shields the hand, and the shaft is locked into a grapper (lance rest, the arrêt) fixed to the breastplate. This 'couched lance' technique gathers the rider's weight and the horse's full speed into a single point at the tip, creating a shock penetration that no infantry or cavalry can meet head-on. After the first impact the shaft usually broke or, having run a foe through, was dropped for a sword or mace. In the joust, deliberately frangible lances were used to reduce injury.

The muzzle-loading firearm of the early modern era

The musket is a muzzle-loading smoothbore long gun used from the 15th to the 19th century, the revolutionary firearm that ended the age of armor. Grown from the hand cannon, it was refined by ignition system from the matchlock to the flintlock to the percussion cap. Its effective range was about 100 m and it fired two or three rounds a minute; individual accuracy was poor, but in the linear tactics of hundreds of men ranked side by side and firing in volley it was immensely powerful. No plate armor could stop a musket ball, so the military supremacy of the armored knightly class finally vanished. From the 16th century to the Napoleonic Wars it was the standard infantry firearm, and with a bayonet fixed it doubled as a spear for close combat.

The Italian thrusting-only dagger

The stiletto is a thrust-only dagger developed in 15th-century Italy, with a thin, rigid blade of triangular or square (sometimes round) cross-section: it has no cutting edge at all and attacks only with its needle point. Some 15–30 cm long, the slender, stiff, awl-like blade was specialized to drive precisely into the gaps of plate armor — the armpit, the joints, the eye-slit of a helm — or between the rings of mail. Small and hard, easy to hide under clothing, it served both as a battlefield armor-piercing dagger and as a weapon of self-defense and assassination. A narrow, deep stab wound looks small but is deadly, which fixed its image as 'the stealthy assassin's blade' and later influenced military fighting-knife designs in many countries.

A polearm with a curved single-edged blade

The glaive is a medieval European bladed polearm: a curved, single-edged blade of 45–60 cm mounted on a wooden shaft 180–210 cm long. Specialized for cutting rather than thrusting, the curved blade delivers deep slashing wounds, and many variants feature a hook on the spine to pull mounted warriors from their horses. The weapon was particularly effective for infantry facing cavalry or defending narrow chokepoints such as gates and bridges, and was widely used across 14th–16th-century Europe — most prominently in France, Italy, and Switzerland.

A light spear designed for throwing

The javelin is a light spear, about 150 to 200 cm long, designed to be thrown. Unlike an ordinary spear held to thrust, its shaft is thin and light and its balance is set so that it flies far and true. Its most famous variant is the Roman pilum, whose thin soft-iron shank below the head was designed to bend under its own weight once it stuck in an enemy shield, making it hard to pull out: a lodged pilum dragged the shield down and forced the enemy at last to throw it away. The javelin is a universal weapon that arose independently among the civilizations of nearly every continent, and it was usual, just after the throw, to switch to a sword or another spear and carry on the fight.

The iconic weapon of the English archer

The longbow is the representative great bow of medieval England, a large bow about 180 cm carved whole from a single stave of yew. It looses arrows with the strong force of an 80 to 150 pound draw (about 36 to 68 kg), and a skilled archer boasts the astonishing speed of 10 to 12 shots a minute. Its effective range reaches about 200 m and its maximum about 350 m, and with the bodkin head it pierced mail. The true power of this bow lay not in one man but in hundreds shooting at once to darken the sky with an arrow storm. In the Hundred Years War the English longbowmen broke the numerically superior French knightly armies again and again with this massed fire.

A single-shot pistol ignited by striking flint

The flintlock pistol is a single-shot pistol fired when flint strikes a steel frizzen, the sparks ignite priming powder in the pan, and that flash passes through the touchhole to set off the main charge. Born when the flintlock mechanism perfected in early-17th-century France was applied to the pistol, it replaced the earlier matchlock and wheellock and spread widely for military and civilian use from the 17th to the 19th century. Its effective range was a mere 15 m or so and its accuracy poor, and after one shot reloading took a long time — so once fired, the pistol was often reversed and used as a club, striking with the heavy butt. It was the emblem of pirates and cavalry, and the standard weapon of the honor duel.

A thrust-oriented slender sword of Renaissance Europe

The rapier is a thrust-specialized sword born in Renaissance Europe, marked by a long, slender, double-edged blade of about 100 to 130 cm. The blade is narrow, stiff, and sharply pointed, optimized for the thrust. Its most striking trait is the complex swept hilt that encloses the hand, in which several rings, a knuckle-bow, and quillons guard the whole hand like a cage. It was the self-defense weapon of the European noble and citizen and the standard weapon of the duel of honor from the 16th to the 18th century. Though it looks slender, its long blade and large guard bring the total weight to about 1 to 1.4 kg. The foil and the epee of modern fencing developed from this weapon, and it was also the weapon that led to the birth of systematic schools of swordsmanship.

A single-edged medieval European chopping sword

The falchion is a single-edged one-handed cutting sword of medieval Europe, marked by a blade that broadens toward the tip. With a blade of about 60 to 80 cm, the cleaver-like design that widens at the end sets the center of mass toward the front of the blade, making it strong for a heavy, axe-like chopping cut. Single-edged with a straight back, it is thought to have developed from butchering knives and agricultural tools. It appeared around the 11th century and was used across Europe into the 16th, and being simpler and cheaper to make than the costly knightly sword with its cruciform hilt, it was mass-issued to common infantry. Authentic surviving examples are very rare, however, so much of what we know of the falchion comes through medieval manuscript illustrations and sculpture.

The great two-handed sword of the Scottish Highlands

The claymore is the great two-handed sword of the Scottish Highland warrior, its name coming from the Gaelic claidheamh-mor, the great sword. About 130 to 150 cm in total length and 2.2 to 2.8 kg in weight, its most striking visual traits are the V-shaped cross-guard sloping forward and the quatrefoil, four-leaf, terminals at the ends of the quillons. Its weight distribution suits wide, arcing cuts, so it is strong at sweeping cuts swung broadly in both hands. It was used by the warriors of the Scottish clans from the 15th to the 17th century and is widely known as a weapon symbolic of the Scottish martial tradition.

A heavy-draw longbow built for battlefield use

The war bow is a heavy military longbow of medieval England with an especially high draw weight, of 150 pounds, about 68 kg, or more. It is a self bow, the whole bow carved from a single stave of yew, and made thicker and stronger than an ordinary longbow. With the narrow, pointed bodkin arrowhead made to pierce armor, it could punch through mail and, at close range, even relatively thin plate. To handle this tremendous draw weight an archer had to train for years from childhood, and as a result of that lifetime of training the skeletons of archers bear clear marks: curvature of the spine, enlarged bones in the left arm, and deformation of the shoulder and finger joints.

A blunt weapon designed to defeat plate armor

The war hammer is an anti-armor striking weapon made to counter the plate armor that developed in the later Middle Ages. Its head is split in two: one side is a flat or textured hammer face that delivers a heavy shock, and the other is a sharp spike, called in French the bec, or beak, that punches through armor. When a sword could no longer cut through hard plate, the war hammer broke a foe in two ways: a blow with the hammer face drove the shock through to the body beyond the armor to break bones or knock him senseless, while the spike pierced weak points such as the helmet or the joints, or a relatively thin plate. It ranged from one-handed versions of about 60 to 90 cm to polearm forms of 120 to 180 cm, the one-handed kind usually weighing about 1 to 2.5 kg.

An extremely long spear for massed infantry formations

The pike is the longest weapon in the history of the infantry, reaching about 400 to 600 cm. A weapon for the mass alone, held in both hands and used only in dense formation, it carries a relatively small steel head on a shaft of ash. The pike square developed by the Swiss mercenaries was a vast hedgehog of a formation with hundreds of points bristling on every side, the most effective means of stopping a cavalry charge. The men of the rear ranks thrust their pikes out over the shoulders of those in front so that four or five rows of points faced the enemy at once. The Spanish tercio of the 16th and 17th centuries joined these pikemen with arquebusiers to perfect the strongest infantry tactic in the Europe of the day.

A chain-linked striking weapon that bypasses shields

The flail is a striking weapon with a metal head, a ball with or without spikes, joined to a haft by a chain. Because the chain lets the head swing freely, its chief advantage is held to be that it can curve over or around an enemy's shield to strike beyond it. The common one-handed form has a haft of about 40 to 60 cm and a chain of about 30 to 50 cm, a total of about 80 to 110 cm. How widely this spiked, one-handed ball-and-chain flail was actually used, however, is debated among scholars: it appears in medieval illustrations and records, but authentic surviving examples are very rare, so some historians doubt its prevalence. It is thought to have been weaponized from the agricultural threshing flail used to beat grain.

A flanged metal club effective against armor

The mace is a striking weapon with a heavy metal head on a shaft, one of the oldest weapon types in human history. From the Bronze Age it was used as a club with a head of stone or metal, and in the Middle Ages it developed into a metal head with protruding flanges or a knobbed form, serving as an armor-crushing weapon. The flanged design in particular concentrates the force of the blow on a narrow edge, carrying the shock into the body even when the armor is not pierced. About 50 to 80 cm long with a head of about 1 to 2 kg, it was held in one hand and usually used with a shield. The story that medieval clergy wielded the mace so as not to shed blood is widely spread, but it is a later-made myth with little historical basis.

A heavy steel-prodded crossbow of the late Middle Ages

The arbalest is a heavy crossbow of the late Middle Ages that used a steel prod in place of the earlier wood-and-horn composite, boasting the greatest penetration of its day. The steel prod's draw weight ran to hundreds of kilograms — far beyond drawing by hand — so it had to be spanned mechanically with a windlass (pulley device) or a cranequin (geared device). It could pierce even plate armor at an effective range of 200 m and beyond, but spanning took so long that its rate of fire was only one or two bolts a minute. To offset this, it was paired with a pavise-bearer, behind whose great shield the crossbowman sheltered while reloading. It shot a short bolt (quarrel, about 30–40 cm) and required little training, so even conscripts could be made battle-ready quickly.

An ancient projectile weapon hurling stones by centrifugal force

The sling is an ancient projectile weapon that hurls a stone or a lead bullet by centrifugal force from a small pouch made of leather or cloth. Two cords are fixed to the sides of the pouch, and as one whirls it overhead or to the side and lets go of one cord, the projectile flies off at a fearsome speed. The structure is utterly simple and costs almost nothing in materials, yet a stone cast by a skilled slinger reached a speed able to shatter a skull. The slingers of the Balearic Islands in particular, today's Spanish Mallorca and Menorca, were the finest elite slinging troops of the ancient world, serving as mercenaries in the armies of Carthage and Rome. It is widely known too as the weapon with which David felled the giant Goliath in the Hebrew Bible, and with lead bullets, the glandes, its range and power greatly increased.

The standard short sword of the Roman legionnaire

The gladius is the standard infantry short sword of the ancient Roman legions. A short, broad, double-edged blade of about 45 to 68 cm with a sharp point, it is optimized for the thrust. It changed over time from the early leaf-shaped hispaniensis, through the waisted Mainz type, to the Pompeii type with parallel edges. The blade was forged of high-carbon steel and hard, and the hilt was made of wood or bone to prevent slipping, with a round pommel to balance it. The Roman legionary, sheltering behind the great shield, the scutum, thrust the short blade swiftly through the gaps between the shields at the enemy's exposed body: this combination of the short sword, the great shield, and the disciplined formation was the heart of Rome's conquest of the Mediterranean.

A throwing weapon that entangles legs with weighted cords

The bola is a throwing weapon of two or three heavy stone or metal weights joined by cords, which on being thrown spins through the air and wraps around the legs of its target to bind its movement. Its chief trait is that it is a capturing weapon, made to seize rather than to kill. It is a hunting weapon developed by the indigenous peoples of South American Patagonia, used mainly to hunt fast grassland animals such as the rhea, the South American ostrich, and the guanaco, a wild relative of the llama. It later grew more famous as the gauchos, the South American cowboys, used it to drive cattle. Each weight is about 200 to 500 g and the cords about 60 to 100 cm, and it was used as a weapon of war too, fielded by the army of the Inca Empire.

Strix · Night Bird — Vampiric Bird of Ancient European Myth

A vampiric bird-creature of Roman and Greek myth, a nocturnal raptor that creeps into the bedrooms of sleeping infants to drink their blood and entrails. It is described variously as a witch transformed into a bird, or as a demon born in the shape of a bird. The most canonical account is Ovid's Fasti 6.131-168 (c. 8 CE), which depicts it as 'with a large head, staring eyes, a beak fit for plunder, grey feathers and curved talons', and describes the ritual of the goddess Carna with hawthorn branches that protected the newborn king Procas. Etymologically the figure is the direct ancestor of the later European vampire tradition — Romanian Strigoi, Italian strega 'witch', French stryge — all of which descend from the Latin strix.

Golem · Artificial Creature — A being made from inanimate materials

An artificial creature of the Jewish mystical Kabbalistic tradition, built from clay, stone, or metal and brought to motion by sacred letters or formulae. The Hebrew word golem first appears in Psalm 139:16, where it names an unformed substance; the earliest direct technical account is in the Kabbalistic Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Creation, c. 200-500 CE), and the twelfth-century German Hasidei Ashkenaz pietist Eleazar of Worms wrote the first detailed creation ritual in his Hilkhot Yetzirah. The most famous case is the Golem of Prague, attributed to Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague (1525-1609, known as the Maharal), who is said to have built a clay servant from the banks of the Vltava to defend his persecuted Jewish community; the legend was given its modern canonical form by Yudl Rosenberg's 1909 pseudepigraphic Niflaos Maharal. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818), Gustav Meyrink's Der Golem (Kurt Wolff Verlag, 1915), Karel Capek's R.U.R. (Aventinum, 1921) which coined the word 'robot', and the four-type Dungeons & Dragons golem (Clay, Stone, Iron, Flesh; TSR, 1977) are all direct descendants of the same template.

Seventh Labor of Heracles in Greek Myth

The Cretan Bull (Greek Tauros Kretikos, Latin Taurus Cretensis) is the great sacred bull of Greek myth, the target of the seventh of Heracles' Twelve Labours and of Theseus' Marathonian exploit — one of the rare beasts to appear in the cycles of two major heroes. The bull was originally sent by Poseidon to King Minos of Crete as a sign of royal legitimacy, with the understanding that Minos would sacrifice it back to the sea-god. Minos kept the beast and substituted another for the sacrifice, and the angered Poseidon caused Minos' queen Pasiphae to fall in love with the bull. Using a wooden cow constructed by the master craftsman Daedalus, Pasiphae mated with the bull and bore the Minotaur. The bull then ran mad across Crete until Heracles caught it bare-handed and brought it across the sea to Mycenae as his seventh labour; released there, it wandered to the plain of Marathon, where Theseus subdued it and offered it at the Athenian temple of Apollo.

Phoenix · Firebird — Legendary bird reborn from flames

The Phoenix (Greek Phoinix, Latin Phoenix) is the immortal bird of ancient Egyptian and Greco-Roman myth. At the end of a 500-year life (or, in alternative reckonings, the 1461-year Egyptian Great Year), it builds a nest of frankincense, cinnamon, and myrrh, sets itself alight upon it, and is reborn from its own ashes as a new young phoenix. The earliest Greek literary reference is in Herodotus, Histories II.73 (fifth century BCE), where the bird is associated with Heliopolis in Egypt; the bird's true root is the Egyptian Bennu, sacred to the sun god Ra at Heliopolis, a grey heron figured as the soul of Ra and the embodiment of the first light of creation. From Greco-Roman tradition the figure was taken up in 1 Clement 25, c. 96 CE, where the early Christian author cites the phoenix as a natural proof of the resurrection of Christ, and from there it became a standard image of Christian iconography. The Chinese fenghuang, Slavic Zhar-Ptitsa, and Persian Simurgh are distinct in origin but were later compared and conflated with the phoenix in nineteenth-century comparative mythology.

Griffin · Legendary Lion-Eagle — Mythical creature with eagle foreparts and lion hindquarters

The Griffin (or Gryphon, Greek gryps, Latin gryphus) is a composite sacred beast combining an eagle's head, wings, and forelimbs with a lion's body, hindquarters, and tail, embodying 'the king of the sky joined to the king of the earth'. The earliest depictions appear around 3000 BCE in ancient Mesopotamia (Elamite Susa) and Egypt's Naqada III palettes; the Minoan throne room at Knossos (c. 1500 BCE) shows griffins as royal guardians. Greek tradition placed them in the far north of Scythia, guarding mountains of gold against the one-eyed Arimaspoi. In medieval Europe the griffin became the most popular heraldic charge, symbolising divine kingship, justice, and (in Christian allegory) the two natures of Christ. Dante's Purgatorio shows a griffin drawing the chariot of the Church; modern fantasy from C. S. Lewis to J. K. Rowling keeps the motif alive.

King of Serpents in Medieval European Legend

The Basilisk (Greek basiliskos 'little king', Latin basiliscus) is the legendary serpent-king of Greco-Roman natural history and medieval European bestiaries. The first detailed description is in Pliny the Elder's Natural History VIII.33 (c. 77-79 CE), where the basilisk is a small serpent twelve fingers long (about 23 cm) inhabiting the deserts of Cyrene in North Africa, with a crown-shaped white mark on its head, whose hiss alone scatters all other snakes; whose gaze kills any creature that meets it; whose breath withers grass and shatters stone; and whose corpse is still venomous — Pliny relates an anecdote of a horseman who pierced one with a spear, only for the venom to travel up the shaft and kill rider and horse alike. From the twelfth century onward, English bestiaries such as the Aberdeen Bestiary and MS Bodley 764 reshaped the figure into a hybrid with the head, wings, and feet of a rooster and the tail of a snake, identifying it with the cockatrice. J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (1998) made the basilisk a canonical figure of modern fantasy.

Unicorn · Monoceros — Legendary Horse with a Sacred Horn

The Unicorn (Latin unicornis, from uni 'one' + cornu 'horn') is the legendary one-horned creature of medieval Europe, represented as a white horse with a single spiral horn in the middle of the forehead and a symbol of purity, chastity, and the sacred. Its etymological root reaches back to Ctesias' fifth-century BCE monoceros, but the unicorn proper crystallised when the Greek Septuagint rendered the Hebrew re'em (now identified as the aurochs) as monokeros and the Latin Vulgate of Saint Jerome rendered that, in turn, as unicornis. The Physiologus of the second to fourth centuries CE introduced the maiden-and-unicorn allegory: no hunter can take the unicorn by force, but a virgin alone in the forest will draw it to her, where it lays its head in her lap and falls asleep. This was theologised as the Incarnation, the unicorn being Christ entering the Virgin's womb. The Cloisters set of seven 'Hunt of the Unicorn' tapestries (Netherlands, 1495-1505) and the Cluny 'Lady with the Unicorn' set of six (c. 1500) are the iconographic peaks. The unicorn supports the Scottish side of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, and in twenty-first-century English it has become the standard term for billion-dollar startups.

Two-Headed Serpent of Greek Myth

The Amphisbaena (Greek Amphisbaina, 'going both ways') is a legendary two-headed serpent of Greek and Roman myth, possessing a head at each end of its body and able to travel in either direction. Its name derives from Greek amphis (both ways) and bainein (to go). The Roman poet Lucan's Pharsalia describes the Amphisbaena among the desert serpents born when Perseus carried the head of Medusa over Libya and her blood dripped onto the sand. Pliny the Elder, Natural History VIII.35, notes drily that the Amphisbaena is the only serpent with two heads, 'as if a single mouth were not enough to release its poison'. The motif entered medieval bestiaries and heraldry as a standard charge, and was canonised again in Jorge Luis Borges's Book of Imaginary Beings (1957). Folk medicine credited its skin and living body with talismanic powers, particularly to protect pregnant women.

Gargoyle · Stone Monster — Legendary Protectors of Medieval Architecture

The Gargoyle (French gargouille) is a grotesquely carved stone waterspout fixed to the exterior of Gothic cathedrals and churches between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. The name derives from French gargouille, itself from Latin gurgulio ('throat' or 'gullet'), the same root that yields English gurgle. Its function is severely practical: a channel is bored through the body so that rainwater channelled along the roof spouts through the creature's mouth and is thrown clear of the wall, sparing the masonry from erosion. At the same time, the monstrous, demonic, or chimerical form was meant to ward off evil. The most famous gargoyles are those of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1163, completed 1345), many of which were redesigned during Eugene Viollet-le-Duc's restoration of 1843-1864. Victor Hugo's 1831 novel Notre-Dame de Paris brought them into popular Romantic imagination. Stone figures without a water-spout function are, strictly, chimeras or grotesques, not gargoyles.

Persian Legendary Lion-Man-Scorpion Hybrid

The Manticore (Persian martyaxwar, 'man-eater') is a composite beast of ancient Persian tradition, with the body of a lion, the face of a human, and the tail of a scorpion. The earliest Greek reference is in the Indika of Ctesias of Knidos (fourth century BCE), a Greek physician at the Persian court, who describes it as an Indian man-eater with blue eyes, three rows of shark-like teeth, and a tail that shoots venomous spines like arrows. Ctesias' account is hearsay he gathered at the Persian court; later scholars have read it as a Greek interpretation of the Indian tiger overlaid with Persian-Indian mythic elements. Pliny's Natural History and Aelian's De natura animalium expanded the description, and Isidore of Seville's Etymologies fixed the Latin manticora. From the twelfth-century Aberdeen Bestiary and MS Bodley 764 onward, the manticore became a standard image in medieval bestiaries, then a heraldic emblem of cruelty and cannibalism. Gary Gygax's 1977 Dungeons and Dragons Monster Manual added bat-wings and standardised the modern fantasy manticore.

Monoceros · Unicorn — Legendary one-horned creature

The Monoceros (Greek Monokeros, Latin Monoceros, 'single horn') is the archetype of the one-horned beast in Greek and Roman natural history. It first appears in the Indika of Ktesias of Knidos (fifth century BCE), a Greek physician at the Persian court who describes wild asses of India with white bodies, purple heads, blue eyes, and a single horn about one cubit long, banded in white, black, and crimson; cups carved from the horn make the drinker immune to poison, seizures, and epilepsy. In the first century CE, Pliny the Elder's Natural History VIII.31 standardised the description as 'a body like a horse, head like a stag, feet like an elephant, tail like a boar, and a single black horn about two cubits long in the middle of the forehead.' When this image reached medieval Europe through Latin sources it was equated with unicornus, the unicorn. In later fantasy, however, Monoceros often persists as a wilder, fiercer original distinct from the white-horse unicorn.

女王 · Queen Regnant — A Female Monarch Who Ascended the Throne in Her Own Right

An independent female monarch who ascended the throne in her own right — not as a consort. Distinguished from the Queen Consort, she is called the Queen Regnant. Historical exemplars include Cleopatra, Elizabeth I, and Queen Victoria. In fantasy, the queen regnant is often portrayed as a supreme character who combines magical ability with exceptional strategic genius — the absolute ruler of the kingdom and the apex of all the nobility.

男爵 · Baron — The First Step of the Hereditary Nobility

The baron is the lowest hereditary noble title in the European feudal title system, the lowest of the five noble ranks (duke, marquess, count, viscount, baron) yet clearly distinguished from commoners. The etymology comes from Old Germanic 'baro' (freeman, warrior), established as a title after the 11th-century Norman Conquest of England, originally meaning 'feudal lord directly owing military vassal duties to the king.' The 25 barons who forced the Magna Carta in 1215 are England's most famous example, renowned for their historical role checking absolute royal power. They held small estates (usually one village and surrounding farmland), collecting taxes and exercising judicial authority over their peasants. Titles vary: 'Lord' in England, 'Monsieur le baron' in France, 'Freiherr' (free lord) in Germany. Modern Britain still grants baronies through life peerages to politicians and scholars.

平民 — The Free People Who Form Society's Majority

The commoner is the free citizen class positioned between nobles and the lowest class (slaves) in feudal societies, the ordinary majority of each society. Including various professions — peasants, artisans, merchants, small business owners, lower-ranked soldiers — they were legally free unlike slaves but lacked the political power or wealth of nobles. In Korea's Joseon dynasty they were called 'sangmin' or 'yangin' under the four-occupations division (scholar, farmer, artisan, merchant), with peasants being the largest segment. In medieval Europe they were classified as the 'Third Estate' — commoners following clergy (First) and nobility (Second) — and the 1789 French Revolution saw this Third Estate overthrow feudalism and open modern civil society. Commoners are not merely 'the weak' but the substantive movers of society, forming the foundation of all agriculture, crafts, commerce, urban development, and cultural creation. In fantasy, they're the core class for the heroic narrative starting point — 'an ordinary rural youth becomes a hero through destiny.'

伯爵 · Count / Earl — The True Power Behind Regional Rule

The count (Earl in England) is an upper-middle noble title in the European feudal system, positioned below marquess and above viscount, serving as the most universal and powerful noble rank as the substantive ruler of a province. The etymology comes from Latin 'comes' (companion of the king), originally meaning a high-ranking official under the Roman emperor. Following Germanic invasions and feudalism's establishment, it became a hereditary lordship governing a county (comté), becoming the core administrative unit of Charlemagne's Frankish empire in the 9th century. England uses the unique term 'Earl' (from Old English 'eorl') for the same rank, while 'Countess' remains the title for the lord's wife. A county typically contained dozens of baronies and could maintain its own army, taxes, and courts. Frequently appearing in English literature like Pride and Prejudice's Darcy family and Dracula.

Wife of a Baron or Female Baron

Baroness is a European noble title referring either to the wife of a Baron or to a woman holding the baronial rank in her own right. Formed by adding the feminine '-ess' suffix to Baron, the title became established in England after the 11th-century Norman Conquest. There are two distinct types: Baroness consort (by marriage) and Baroness in her own right (by inheritance or grant). Victorian-era reforms allowed women to hold titles independently, and modern UK life peerages have created many female barons. Margaret Thatcher (Baroness Thatcher) is a notable example.

皇太子 · Crown Prince — The Sole Heir to the Empire

The Crown Prince is the eldest son or legitimate heir formally designated as successor of an emperor or king. Not simply the eldest child, only those officially recognized as next monarch through formal investiture rites become crown prince. In East Asia (Korea, China, Japan), they were called 'Donggung' (East Palace) — given separate residences in the east of the imperial palace for education and governance training as future emperor. The crown prince is not merely a successor but a living symbol of power, simultaneously the most dangerous position — constant target of brothers, concubines, and maternal relatives plotting for the throne. Historically, many tragic cases exist of emperors themselves doubting and deposing or executing their own crown princes (Han Wudi's Crown Prince Ju in China, Joseon Yeongjo's Crown Prince Sado). Early imperial deaths sometimes led to youthful enthronements, while delayed enthronements caused conflicts with the emperor. England uses 'Prince of Wales,' Japan uses '皇太子' (Kōtaishi).

大公 · Grand Duke / Archduke — The Highest Noble, Near-Royalty

The Grand Duke (Archduke) is the highest noble title in the European title system, ranking above duke and equivalent to royalty, occupying a special position between royal family and regular dukes. Usually granted to monarchs of small independent states (rulers of minor kingdoms) or direct relatives of great power imperial families. The most famous example is the 'Archduke' (Erzherzog) of the Habsburg dynasty in the Holy Roman Empire — the title granted from the 14th century to the direct line ruling the Archduchy of Austria and producing Holy Roman Emperors. Franz Ferdinand, the last crown prince-rank archduke, was the victim of the 1914 Sarajevo assassination that triggered World War I. Before 19th-century German unification, several grand duchies existed as actual independent states — Luxembourg, Baden, Hesse — with Luxembourg remaining Europe's only grand duchy today. The Russian imperial house granted 'Velikiy knyaz' (Grand Prince) to the emperor's children.

女騎士 · Dame — A Female Warrior Who Earned Her Title by Sword and Oath

A woman who has been formally invested with knighthood through the knight's oath. Historically rare, but in fantasy worlds she is a common figure in holy orders, royal guards, and magic knight corps. 'Dame' is the official title granted to female knights in the British chivalric system; in Eastern fantasy she appears as a female general, wandering swordswoman, or Hwarang warrior. The Dame is frequently portrayed as a character caught between the codes of chivalry and the social expectations placed on women.

皇帝 · Emperor — The Empire's Supreme Pinnacle, the Living Law Itself

The emperor is the supreme monarch ruling over multiple kingdoms, peoples, and cultures, a higher monarchical title than the king of a single kingdom. The etymology comes from Latin 'imperator' (commander-in-chief), originally meaning the supreme commander of late Roman Republic armies, becoming effectively a monarchical title after Augustus (27 BCE). In East Asia, Qin Shi Huang first used the title 'Emperor' (皇帝) in 221 BCE, becoming standard in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. In the West, it was used by Holy Roman Emperors (from Charlemagne in 800), Russian Tsars, Austrian and German emperors, and Napoleon of France. The emperor's legitimacy derives not from mere power but from the sacred authority of 'Mandate of Heaven' or 'God's vicar.' Almost all European empires collapsed with World War I, and currently only the Emperor of Japan (a modern constitutional monarch) uses the title. In fantasy, it's the standard title for the most powerful monarch characters.

公爵 · Duke — The Highest Noble, Second Only to the King

The duke is the highest title in the European feudal noble system, the highest noble rank below royalty (kings and princes). The etymology comes from Latin 'dux' (military commander), a military position in late Rome referring to supreme commanders of frontier armies. After Germanic settlement, it evolved into hereditary lords governing entire tribes or vast regions. Under 9th-century Charlemagne, the Frankish empire's five great duchies (Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, Lotharingia) were formed, sharing power with the emperor. A duchy was the size of a small kingdom containing multiple counties and marquessates, maintaining its own army, courts, and currency. The most famous duchies include England's Duke of Normandy (later the English royal house), France's Duke of Burgundy, and Italy's Duke of Milan. In modern Britain, it remains the highest non-royal title, with the Duke of Westminster and Duke of Marlborough still active. Titles: 'Duke,' wife 'Duchess.'

最下層民 — The Lowest Stratum of Society

Cheonmin (賤民) was the lowest social class in Korea's Joseon dynasty (1392-1910) caste system, collectively referring to slaves, butchers (baekjeong), entertainers, shamans, courtesans, and shoemakers — below yangban (nobles), jungin (middle class), and sangmin (commoners). The name comes from the Chinese character 'cheon' (賤, lowly), and they were essentially a caste with virtually no legal protection, forbidden from owning land, taking civil service exams, education, and certain occupations. Slaves comprised the largest proportion, sometimes 30-40% of the population, divided into public slaves (state-owned) and private slaves (privately owned). Despite their essential roles — butchers handled slaughter and leather work, entertainers performed and acrobatics, shoemakers made footwear — they faced harsh discrimination. The class system was abolished in the 1894 Gabo Reform, but social discrimination persisted long through the colonial period and after liberation. In fantasy settings, this can be adapted variously, such as classes forbidden from using magic or subject to forced conscription.

公主 · Princess — The King's Daughter, the Most Precious Bargaining Chip

The daughter of a king or emperor. A status conferred by bloodline rather than a hereditary title; her succession rights are often more restricted than a prince's. Yet in fantasy, the princess has been overwhelmingly reinterpreted not as a passive rescue target but as an active figure who takes up the sword, wields magic, or orchestrates political schemes herself. A princess's marriage sealed alliances between kingdoms — making the princess herself a 'living political asset.'

令愛 · Young Lady — The Unmarried Daughter of a Noble House

An honorific for the unmarried daughter of a noble household. 'Young Lady' (令愛) originally means 'your precious daughter' — a respectful term used when referring to another's daughter. It is the most frequently appearing female status in romance fantasy, used alongside the family's title as in 'the Young Lady of Baron House' or 'the Young Lady of Duke House.' A young lady's social standing depends entirely on her father's rank, and it is also a provisional status that lasts only until marriage.

子爵 · Viscount — The Middle Noble Between Count and Baron

The viscount is a middle noble title in the European feudal system positioned between count and baron. The etymology comes from Latin 'vicecomes' (vice-count), originally meaning 'count's deputy' — the vassal who handled administration on the count's behalf when the count governed distant estates. First appearing in 9th-century Carolingian France and introduced to England through the 11th-century Norman Conquest, it gradually became an independent title. England's first formal viscount was John Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont in 1440, and approximately 270 viscount families currently exist. Their flexible position between count and baron allowed marriages and alliances with both classes. Titles vary: English 'Viscount,' French 'Vicomte,' Italian 'Visconte,' German 'Burggraf.' A staple character class in Victorian English literature, including Bingley and Darcy types in Pride and Prejudice.

侯爵 · Marquess / Margrave — Noble Guardian of the Frontier

The marquess (Marquis) is an upper noble title in the European feudal system positioned below duke and above count, originally derived from 'margrave' — a count guarding borders with hostile countries. The etymology relates to Germanic 'mark' (border), originating in the 9th-century Carolingian dynasty as powerful military lords appointed to defend the eastern frontiers of the Frankish empire (modern Germany, Austria, northern Italy). They held greater autonomy and military power than ordinary counts, granted for the special mission of frontier defense. Over time the military meaning faded and it became simply a title between count and duke, while the Holy Roman Empire preserved the name 'Margrave' — the most famous being the Margrave of Brandenburg (later the Kingdom of Prussia, then the German Empire). Titles vary: English 'Marquess,' French 'Marquis,' Italian 'Marchese,' German 'Markgraf.'

Beaked mask and waxed coat of the plague physician

The plague doctor outfit is the protective costume worn by physicians treating bubonic plague victims in 17th-century Europe — among the most bizarre medical garments in history. Designed in 1619 by French court physician Charles de Lorme, it comprises a long bird-beaked mask, an ankle-length waxed leather coat, wide-brimmed hat, long gloves, boots, and a staff. Pre-germ-theory medicine attributed disease to "miasma" (bad air), so the beak was stuffed with dried herbs, spices, and vinegar-soaked cloth to filter inhaled air. Glass eye-holes preserved vision; the waxed leather sealed off skin contact. Although built on mistaken theory, the outfit happened to block droplets and fleas effectively. The staff let doctors examine patients without touching them. Preserved and aestheticized through Venetian Carnival's medico della peste mask, the plague doctor became the iconic image of death, pestilence, and mysterious alchemy in gothic fantasy, steampunk, and horror.

Medieval alchemist's symbolic laboratory robe

The alchemist's robe is the long dark garment worn by European alchemists from the 12th to the 17th centuries — a blend of monastic habit and scholar's gown, elaborated with the distinctive symbolic vocabulary of alchemy. The basic form is an ankle-length robe in black, deep blue, or purple, with a hood serving both to shield the head from fumes and liquids during experiments and to heighten the mystical atmosphere of ritual. Along the hem, sleeves, and hood, alchemists embroidered the signatures of their craft — the philosopher's stone, the ouroboros serpent, sun and moon, planetary glyphs, zodiacal signs, and patterns from the Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus — in gold and silver thread, marking the wearer's lineage in secret knowledge. Paracelsus, John Dee, and other historical alchemists appear in such robes in their portraits. In modern fantasy, this robe — hooded, symbol-laden, starlit — defines the archetypal mage, occultist, and secret society initiate.

Fitted upper garment shaping the female torso

The bodice was a tightly fitted upper garment worn by European women from the 16th to 18th centuries, designed to be worn over a corset and laced at the front or back to accentuate the waist and bust. Boned with whalebone or metal to maintain its rigid shape, it featured necklines and sleeves that evolved dramatically across eras. Noble women's bodices were lavishly decorated with embroidery, gems, and gold thread, making them among the most expensive components of a woman's wardrobe.

Sleeveless overgarment worn over armor

The surcoat was a loose, typically sleeveless garment worn over armor, originating during the Crusades to shield metal armor from the Middle Eastern sun. It quickly evolved into the primary means of displaying a knight's heraldic arms on the battlefield, making it central to the development of European heraldry and knightly identity. Made of linen, wool, or silk with the wearer's coat of arms embroidered on the front and back, it was most widespread in the 13th-14th centuries before being replaced by jupons and tabards.

Knee-length trousers of the aristocratic gentleman

Breeches were knee-length trousers worn by European men from the 16th through 19th centuries, fastened below the knee with buttons or buckles and paired with silk stockings. As the successor to medieval hose, they became a powerful symbol of aristocratic status — so much so that French revolutionaries called themselves "sans-culottes" (without breeches) to mark their rejection of the upper class. Though displaced by full-length trousers in the 19th century, breeches survive today in equestrian and ceremonial court dress.

Universal T-shaped garment of the medieval world

The tunic was the most fundamental garment of medieval Europe — a simple T-shaped body covering worn by men and women of every social class from antiquity through the Middle Ages. Secured with a belt that itself served as a status marker, its length and fabric quality indicated rank: short and coarse linen for laboring commoners, long and fine silk for royalty. Descended directly from the Roman tunica, it persisted for centuries as the base layer over which surcoats and cloaks were worn.

Everyday one-piece dress of the medieval woman

The kirtle was the most common women's garment in Europe from the 12th to 16th centuries — a one-piece dress with a fitted bodice and full skirt worn over a chemise. Universal across all social classes, it used fabric quality and dye color to signal status: undyed linen for commoners, dyed wool or silk for nobility. Its increasingly fitted bodice from the 14th century onward laid the groundwork for the later separation into distinct bodice and skirt components.

Universal draped outer garment of all ages

The cloak is the most fundamental form of outer garment — a single broad piece of cloth draped over the shoulders and fastened at the neck with a brooch, pin, or cord. Used from antiquity through the modern era across all social classes, it served primarily for warmth and weather protection. Hooded variants became iconic for travelers and monks, and later for mysterious figures in fantasy literature. While commoners wore rough waterproofed wool, nobles sported fur-lined cloaks embroidered with gold thread.

Extravagantly sleeved court gown of late medieval Europe

The houppelande was the ultimate expression of late medieval court fashion, prevalent from the late 14th through 15th centuries. Its defining feature was enormously wide "wing sleeves" that could trail to the floor, often finished with scalloped dagging at the edges. A high standing collar, floor-length fullness gathered into dramatic folds at a belted waist, and luxurious materials like silk, velvet, and brocade with fur lining made it staggeringly expensive. The Burgundian court was its fashion epicenter, and sumptuary laws frequently targeted its conspicuous extravagance.

Short decorative mantle of the nobility

The cape is a shorter mantle covering the shoulders down to the waist or hips, distinguished from the full-length cloak by its abbreviated cut that left the arms free. Favored by knights and nobles who needed to display rank while keeping weapons accessible, it was typically crafted from luxurious materials like fur, velvet, and silk. The ermine (white stoat fur) cape became an iconic symbol of royalty, while the Spanish capa circulated as everyday men's fashion during the Renaissance.

Fitted upper-body garment of the European gentleman

The doublet was a close-fitting men's jacket worn across Europe from the 14th to 17th centuries. Padded and buttoned or laced at the front, it featured decorative slashing to reveal colorful linings beneath, along with puffed sleeves that varied dramatically by era. Paired with hose and connected by lacing points at the waist, it formed the core of aristocratic male dress. The exaggerated peascod belly silhouette became a defining fashion statement of the Elizabethan period.

Grand formal dress for the dance floor

The ball gown was the pinnacle of women's formal dress in 18th and 19th-century European high society, defined by three elements: a tightly corseted waist, an off-the-shoulder neckline, and an expansive floor-length skirt supported by crinolines or bustles. Reaching its zenith during the Victorian era, it was crafted from the finest silks, satins, and organzas adorned with lace, ribbons, and jewels. As the centerpiece of the most important social events of the season, a ball gown served as a public display of a family's wealth and status.

Armorial surcoat of the medieval knight

The tabard is a knee-length sleeveless over-garment worn by medieval knights above their armor, emblazoned on front and back with the wearer's coat of arms to identify them in battle and tournament. It originated in the 12th century Crusades when white cloth was thrown over metal armor to deflect the desert sun; painting family arms onto the cloth evolved the garment into the surcoat, simplified by the 14th–15th centuries into the open-sided tabard. Heraldry — the rule-bound design of arms — governed the tabard's motifs strictly, with subtle variations marking inheritance lines. In tournaments, where knights were masked by helmets, the tabard was their sole identifier, proclaimed aloud by heralds. British royal ceremony preserves the tradition through the Kings of Arms who still wear tabards of the royal arms today. In fantasy RPGs, the tabard marks the knight, paladin, and kingdom's man-at-arms.

Long flowing garment of scholars and wizards

The robe is an ankle-length outer garment with wide sleeves and a loose silhouette, historically the defining dress of scholars, clergy, judges, and physicians. Medieval academic robes are the direct ancestor of modern graduation gowns, and judicial robes persist in British courts to this day. In fantasy literature and games, the robe has become inseparable from the wizard archetype, often imbued with magical properties. Sleeve width and color carried meaning — black for scholars, red for cardinals, white for the pope.

University scholar's black formal robe

The academic gown is the long black robe worn by scholars and degree holders since the founding of European universities in the 12th century. Derived from medieval monastic habits, it preserves the deep link between early universities and the church — professors at Bologna, Paris, and Oxford adopted secularized versions of monk's robes as their professional dress. Degrees are marked with precise distinctions: plain gown for Bachelors, wide-sleeved for Masters, three velvet bars and field-colored hoods (purple for law, green for medicine, red for theology, blue for philosophy) for Doctors. Oxford and Cambridge still retain forms nearly unchanged from five centuries ago. The mortarboard cap and tassel complete the ensemble — moving the tassel from left to right is the iconic American graduation gesture. In fantasy, academic gowns are the emblem of archmages, sages, and magic-school professors, epitomized by the Hogwarts masters in Harry Potter.

Colorful court jester's costume

The jester's motley is the flamboyant costume worn by court jesters — the professional fools of medieval and Renaissance European courts. Its signature features are the motley pattern of mismatched bright colors divided down the center, and the cockscomb hat with three bell-tipped points. The outfit was deliberately absurd, visualizing the inversion of normal order, with red, yellow, green, and blue set in violent contrast and small bells jingling from sleeves and hems. The three-pointed cockscomb carried double meaning — it mocked the Trinity while symbolizing both folly and wisdom. The jester was no mere clown: he was the only figure permitted to speak truth to the king, as Shakespeare's fool in King Lear demonstrates. Historical jesters like Will Somers (Henry VIII) and Triboulet (Francis I) served as confidants and political counselors — their motley a badge of sanctioned irreverence. The jester's motley prefigures the tarot's Fool and the modern Joker.

Medieval European monastic robe

The monk's habit is the ankle-length robe worn by male religious of Medieval Europe, with strictly regulated colors marking each order: Benedictines in black with scapular, Cistercians in white, Franciscans in coarse brown with rope cincture, Dominicans in white with black mantle. Rope belts, hooded cowls, and scapulars symbolized vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Woven from coarse wool or unbleached linen, habits expressed the ascetic ideal in visible contrast to worldly finery. Monks in medieval times were also scholars, tending scriptoria, medicine, and contemplative study. In fantasy, the habit is the archetypal dress of clerics, sages, and reclusive mystics.

Catholic nun's veil and robe

The nun's habit is the dress of Catholic religious women, distinguished from monks' habits by the veil covering the head and the wimple framing face, neck, and chin. From medieval times until the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s, habits strictly concealed the hair, with each order prescribing its colors — Benedictines in black veil and robe, Carmelites in brown with white wimple, Dominicans in white with black veil. The veil combined the medieval custom of married women covering their hair with the spiritual identity of a "bride of Christ." A crucifix and rosary at the waist completed the ensemble. After Vatican II most orders simplified their dress, though traditionalist communities preserve the classic habit. In fantasy and gothic literature, the nun's habit signals purity, mystery, and sometimes a hidden darkness.

British butler's black formal suit

The butler's tailcoat is the black formal suit worn by male head servants in 19th- and early-20th-century British aristocratic households. Its defining feature is the tailcoat itself — cut off at the waist in front and split into two long tails at the back — originally noble evening wear, later adopted for butlers to mark a visible hierarchy. Where the master wore white tie and white waistcoat, the butler wore black tie and black waistcoat: nearly matching but unmistakably subordinate. Beneath the tailcoat went a starched white shirt with wing collar and black bow tie; a pocket watch chain crossed the waistcoat horizontally; white gloves completed the dress. The butler, chief of all male household staff, supervised wine service, guest reception, and other servants — his immaculate uniform enforced by strict standards. Characters like Stevens in The Remains of the Day and Alfred Pennyworth in Batman have spread the image globally.

Heat-shielding apron of the forge

The blacksmith's apron is a thick leather garment worn by smiths from medieval times to the present at forge and anvil, shielding the body from flying sparks, shrapnel, and searing steam. Made from layered tanned cowhide or pigskin, held by neck strap and waist ties, it reached from neck to knee or shin — longer versions down to the feet for workshops handling heavy ironwork. In medieval European guilds, apprentices earned the right to wear the apron only through a formal ceremony, making it both practical and a symbol of craft identity. Years of use darkened the leather with soot and fire-marks, and old aprons passed down from master to master became heirlooms. In fantasy, the blacksmith's apron — blackened, riveted, and pocketed — is the signature dress of dwarf artisans and master weapon-smiths.

Victorian female servant's uniform

The maid's dress is the uniform of female domestic servants in Victorian-era British households, defined by its striking black-and-white contrast — a dark long dress covered by a white apron, topped by a white mob cap. Before Victorian times, servants simply wore everyday clothes; but as rising middle-class wealth made employing domestic staff a mark of status, standardized uniforms emerged to display the employer's rank. Strict class divisions within the servant hierarchy produced different uniforms: gray dresses for scullery maids doing morning cleaning, black with lace-trimmed white aprons for parlour maids serving afternoon guests, and the finest fabrics for the lady's maid. The maid's dress made a household's internal class structure visible at a glance — central to the look of dramas like Downton Abbey. In late-20th century Japanese pop culture, a highly fictionalized "moe maid" uniform evolved far from the Victorian original.

Banshee · The Wailing Death-Herald — Lament of Celtic Lore

The Banshee (Irish Gaelic bean sí, Scottish Gaelic bean sìth, 'woman of the fairy mound') is the female spirit of Irish and Scottish Celtic tradition whose chilling wail at night foretells an imminent death in a particular family. She does not cause the death but mourns it in advance, an incarnation of grief itself. The word descends from Old Irish ben síde, with the English form banshee fixed in eighteenth-century usage. Anthropologists trace the figure to the Celtic keening tradition (caoineadh in Irish), in which women mourners wailed the dead at funerals; as the church suppressed keening, its social function was preserved in the supernatural banshee. Thomas Crofton Croker's Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland (1825) and W. B. Yeats's Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (1888) made the banshee a central figure of the Celtic Revival, and Patricia Lysaght's Banshee: The Irish Death Messenger (1986) established the scholarly canon. Marvel Comics' X-Men hero Banshee (1967), Sylvanas Windrunner the Banshee Queen of World of Warcraft (2004), and the Cinemax television series Banshee (2013-2016) have kept the figure in modern popular culture.

Mummy · The Bandaged Dead — A Cursed Corpse Guarding the Tomb

The Mummy (English mummy, from Persian mumiya 'bitumen') is the undead embalmed corpse, wrapped in linen bandages, that rises from the tomb to take vengeance and curse the living. Its iconographic prototype is the ancient Egyptian mummification practice and afterlife belief: the seventy-day funerary rite — extraction of the brain through the nostril, separation of the viscera into four canopic jars dedicated to the sons of Horus (Imsety, Hapy, Duamutef, Qebehsenuef), natron desiccation, linen wrapping with embedded Book of the Dead amulets — was canonised from the Old Kingdom (c. 3000 BC) and refined through the New Kingdom (1550-1295 BC). Herodotus described the procedure in detail in Histories Book II (c. 440 BC). The 1922 November discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun (c. 1341-1323 BC) in the Valley of the Kings by the British archaeologist Howard Carter, and the April 1923 death of his patron Lord Carnarvon, globalised the 'Curse of the Pharaohs' legend. Karl Freund's Universal horror film The Mummy (1932), with Boris Karloff as Imhotep, fixed the cinematic canon of the vengeful resurrected mummy.

Ghoul · The Corpse-Eater — A Desert Monster That Digs Up and Devours the Dead

The Ghoul (English ghoul, from Arabic ghul) is the corpse-eating monster and shape-shifting cannibal of the desert and graveyard, originating in pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabian folklore of the Jahiliyyah (before the sixth century), transmitted through the One Thousand and One Nights (Alf Laylah wa-Laylah, compiled in the ninth century), and established in Western horror canon from the eighteenth century onwards. The etymology lies in Arabic ghul, from the verb ghala ('to seize, to snatch'). In Arabian folklore, the ghoul is a malevolent variety of jinn that haunts the desert to lure and devour travellers, possessing the power to transform into human or animal form (particularly the hyena) and disinterring corpses from graves. Antoine Galland's French translation of the Arabian Nights (1704-1717), William Beckford's Gothic novel Vathek (1786), and Lord Byron's poem The Giaour (1813) introduced the ghoul to Western literature, and H. P. Lovecraft's short story Pickman's Model (1927) and The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath (1927) established the modern horror canon of the ghoul as a foundational race of the Cthulhu Mythos.

Wraith · The Vengeful Specter — A Dark Spirit That Lost Its Form, Leaving Only Hatred

The Wraith is an incorporeal undead spirit born from an intense grudge, hatred, or unfinished business, drifting as a shadowy or misty form after the loss of its body. The word first appears in English in 1513, in the Scottish translation of Virgil's Aeneid by Gavin Douglas, where it denotes a doppelganger-apparition signalling imminent or recent death. Through eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Scottish Gothic literature, especially Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott, the wraith became established as a death-omen and avenging spirit of unfulfilled fate. J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955) decisively redefined the figure as the Nazgul or Ringwraiths, the nine human kings whose souls were drained by Sauron's rings of power, and the 1974 first edition of Dungeons and Dragons canonised the wraith as an incorporeal undead monster vulnerable only to enchanted weapons. The wraith now stands as the archetype of the cold-radiating, life-draining, mostly intangible undead across modern fantasy gaming, action RPGs, and horror fiction.

Vampire · The Bloodsucker — Night's Aristocrat Living Immortal on the Blood of the Living

The Vampire (English Vampire, Slavic Upir or Vampir) is the undead who is dead yet has not died, sustaining immortality by drinking the blood of the living, possessed of pale skin, fangs, and a seductive charisma, transforming into bat, mist, or wolf — the canonical iconographic figure that originated in Slavic Eastern-European folklore and was completed in nineteenth-century English literature. The etymology derives from the Slavic upir (East Slavic) and vapir (South Slavic), and the first English use of vampire appears in the 1734 London Journal travel magazine. The iconographic origin is the resurrected-corpse tradition of Slavic folklore and the eighteenth-century Eastern European Vampire Panic (1725-1755 in Habsburg-occupied Serbia and Hungary), of which the decisive cases are the 1725 Petar Blagojevic affair in Kisilova, Serbia, and the 1726-1732 Arnold Paole affair in Medvegja, Serbia — the Visum et Repertum, the official 1732 Latin report by the Austrian-Habsburg military surgeon Johann Flueckinger, is the decisive textual canon that registered the vampire as an official subject in European academia. The Vampyre by John William Polidori (1795-1821), published on 1 April 1819 in the British New Monthly Magazine — written at the Villa Diodati in Switzerland in 1816 at the suggestion of Lord Byron together with Mary Shelley (Frankenstein) — is the origin of the English-literary vampire canon, and Bram Stoker's (1847-1912) Dracula, published in Britain on 26 May 1897, completed the decisive canon of the elegant, aristocratic modern vampire iconography.

Zombie · The Reanimated Corpse — Mindless Man-Eating Hordes of the Dead

The Zombie is the reanimated corpse that has lost reason and self, hungering for the flesh and brains of the living. The word descends from West African Kongo zumbi or nzambi ('spirit, soul, god'), carried through the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Atlantic slave trade to the Caribbean, where it embedded itself in Haitian Vodou. In Vodou tradition, a bokor (sorcerer) drugs a living person into a state of apparent death, buries them, and then disinters and enslaves the soulless body. Victor Halperin's White Zombie (1932) introduced the figure to cinema, but it was George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968) that decisively broke with the Vodou tradition and established the modern flesh-eating, mass-attacking corpse iconography. Dawn of the Dead (1978), Resident Evil (1996), 28 Days Later (2002), and The Walking Dead (comics 2003, AMC television 2010 onward) have made the zombie the central horror figure of the early twenty-first century.

Dullahan · The Headless Horseman — Ireland's Death-Bringing Envoy

The Dullahan (Irish Dullahan, English Dullahan) is the headless rider on a black horse holding his own severed head in one hand, the canonical iconographic figure of the death-collecting spirit and the executor of fate of Irish Celtic tradition. The etymology derives from the Irish dulachan or dubhlachan — both terms glossed as 'messenger of darkness' or 'headless one' — a vestige of the human-sacrifice belief of pre-Christian Celtic Ireland. The decisive scholarly canon is Thomas Crofton Croker's 1825 Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, which established the canonical visual figure of the headless rider whose severed head emits light, and Lady Wilde's 1887 Ancient Legends, Mystic Charms, and Superstitions of Ireland (mother of Oscar Wilde, 1821-1896), which fixed the canonical behaviour pattern of the dullahan (calling a person's name causes their death; whipping with a human spine; doors opening of their own accord along the path; fear of gold). Washington Irving's November 1820 short story The Legend of Sleepy Hollow — in which a Hessian-mercenary headless rider haunts Sleepy Hollow in the New York Hudson Valley — decisively settled the dullahan iconography in Anglo-American literature, and Tim Burton's 1999 film Sleepy Hollow (starring Johnny Depp and Christopher Walken as the Headless Horseman) completed the modern cinematic canon.

Skeleton Warrior · Undead Soldier — A warrior risen from death and granted unlife

The Skeleton Warrior (English Skeleton Warrior, Latin Sceletus Bellator) is the warrior-type undead composed of the bones of the dead, summoned or resurrected by magic, curse, or black sorcery, who fights with sword, spear, shield, and armour, possessed of pure skeletal frame without flesh or soul — the decisive canonical iconographic undead figure of modern Western fantasy. The English skeleton derives from the Greek skeleton ('dried corpse'), through the Latin sceleton, settling in English in the sixteenth century, and is depicted as an instrumental being without original personality or will, faithfully obeying only the commands of the Necromancer. The mythical archetype is the Spartoi (Sparta, 'the Sown Ones') of Cadmus in ancient Greek mythology — armed warriors who grew from the ground when Cadmus, by the instruction of the goddess Athena, sowed the teeth of a dragon he had killed. The decisive modern canon is the famous scene in the 19 July 1963 British release of the film Jason and the Argonauts directed by Don Chaffey (1917-1990) — the four-and-a-half-minute scene of seven skeleton warriors in stop-motion animation by the British cinema special-effects master Ray Harryhausen (1920-2013) duelling with the Greek hero Jason — the decisive canon of modern skeleton-warrior iconography. The Skeleton monster of the 1974 tabletop RPG Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) by Gary Gygax (1938-2008), in the 1977 Monster Manual, established the canon of the modern fantasy RPG.

Ghost · The Wandering Spirit — A Soul Bound to the World by Attachment and Unfinished Story

The Ghost (English Ghost, Latin Spectrum) is the soul of the dead that, due to lingering attachment, grudge, or unresolved circumstance, cannot proceed to the afterworld and remains in this world, the canonical iconographic figure of universal worldwide post-mortem belief: transparent or translucent in form, bound to a specific place (haunted houses, old houses), and manifesting through the Poltergeist (German for 'noisy spirit'), cold draught, apparition, sound, and weeping. The English ghost derives from Old English gaast (soul, spirit), and the iconographic origin spans the gidim of Mesopotamia, the akh of ancient Egypt, the psyche and eidolon of ancient Greece, the lar (guardian spirit) and lemur of ancient Rome — universally from the post-mortem soul belief of every civilisation. The decisive Western textual canon is Letter 27 of Book 7 of the Epistulae of Pliny the Younger (61-113 CE) of the late first century CE — in which the Greek philosopher Athenodorus (74 BCE - 7 CE) encounters in a haunted Athens house an old man's ghost rattling chains, and excavates his burial place to grant him post-mortem rest — the decisive Western canon of the first haunted-house ghost story. The ghost of Hamlet's father in William Shakespeare's (1564-1616) tragedy Hamlet (1599-1601) established the English-literary ghost canon, and the Marley and three Spirits of Past, Present, and Future in Charles Dickens's (1812-1870) novella A Christmas Carol (published 19 December 1843) are the decisive work of the Victorian ghost canon.

Revenant · The Vengeful Returned — A Corpse Risen From the Grave for One Purpose

The Revenant (English revenant, from Latin revenans, 'the one returning') is a corpse that has risen from its grave on its own under the drive of intense vengeance or unresolved purpose, the medieval European iconographic figure of a self-aware undead retaining a distinct ego and a single purpose. The etymology lies in the Latin revenans, the present participle of the verb revenire ('to return'), which became the canonical term in eleventh- and twelfth-century Latin chronicles for the corpse that comes back from the grave to torment the village. The decisive textual source is the Historia Rerum Anglicarum (History of English Affairs) by the twelfth-century English chronicler William of Newburgh (c. 1136-1198), whose Book V chapters 22-24 record detailed cases of revenants in Buckinghamshire, Berwick, and Anant in northern England, establishing the decisive medieval European canon. Contemporary works such as Walter Map's De Nugis Curialium (Courtiers' Trifles, c. 1180) and the figure of Glam in the Saga of Grettir (Grettis Saga, thirteenth to fourteenth century) form the Northern-European revenant canon. Gary Gygax's first-edition Dungeons & Dragons Monster Manual (1977) systematised the revenant as a self-aware undead obsessed with a single object of vengeance, and Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu's 2015 film The Revenant (starring Leonardo DiCaprio, winner of the Academy Award for Best Director) established the twenty-first-century cinematic canon of the figure.

Wight · The Barrow Dead — A Cursed Corpse Guarding the Tomb's Treasure

The Wight (English Wight, the barrow-dwelling variant being the Barrow-wight) is the graveyard undead in which a corpse buried in a barrow or burial mound has risen by reason of obsession with treasure and curse, and is the canonical iconographic figure of the self-aware corpse-form undead, in contrast to the incorporeal wraith. The etymology lies in the Old English wiht ('creature, being'), and the general 'being' sense that appears in the eighth-century Old English epic Beowulf was later specified as the graveyard-undead meaning. The iconographic origin is the draugr ('walking corpse') and haugbui ('mound-dweller') of the thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Icelandic family sagas, and the decisive English-literary canon is the Barrow-wight that appears in J.R.R. Tolkien's The Fellowship of the Ring (Allen and Unwin, July 1954), Book One Chapter 8 'Fog on the Barrow-Downs', in which Frodo and the hobbits are captured by a Barrow-wight in the Barrow-downs east of the Old Forest and are to be buried with grave-goods but are rescued by Tom Bombadil's song. Gary Gygax's first edition AD&D Monster Manual of January 1977 added the wight as the undead canon of modern fantasy role-playing games, with the energy-draining ability by which the slain becomes a new wight.

Gremlin · The Machine-Breaking Yokai — A Prankster of the Modern Technological Age

The Gremlin (English Gremlin) is the small and cunning twentieth-century modern yokai that secretly damages machines and devices, the canonical iconographic figure of the newest form of yokai born of industrial-technological civilisation. The etymology is uncertain, but it originated in the military slang of the pilots and mechanics of the Royal Air Force (RAF) of Britain in the 1920s, first appearing in print in the British aviation magazine The Aeroplane in April 1929, and settled during the two World Wars as the unseen entity blamed for the inexplicable mechanical failures of RAF aircraft. The decisive source is the first children's book by the Norwegian-born British RAF pilot Roald Dahl (1916-1990), The Gremlins, published in April 1943 — Disney's first illustrated children's book, with illustrations by Walt Disney himself and produced by Disney — which established the popular canon of the gremlin iconography. The 11 October 1963 CBS Twilight Zone Season 5 episode Nightmare at 20,000 Feet, starring William Shatner, in which a gremlin appears on the wing of an airliner, established the American television canon, and the 8 June 1984 Joe Dante film Gremlins (screenplay by Chris Columbus, produced by Steven Spielberg) completed the decisive popular canon of twenty-first-century gremlin iconography.

Large decorative brooch for fastening cloaks at the shoulder

A cloak brooch is a large brooch used to fasten a cloak or mantle at the shoulder in medieval Europe. Typically circular (annular) or penannular in form with a long pin, its surface was engraved or enameled with family crests, religious symbols, or intricate geometric patterns. For knights and nobles, the brooch was a vital status marker revealing identity and allegiance. Celtic ring brooches like the Tara Brooch are celebrated for their intricate interlace work and gold filigree, while Viking disc brooches developed a distinctive aesthetic of silver work and animal motifs.